Showing posts with label Richard Smoley. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Richard Smoley. Show all posts

2019/10/01

오강남 - 함석헌 사상의 비교사상사적 의의-- 신비주의적 관점을 중심으로

함석헌 사상의 비교사상사적 의의-오강남 > 연구논문 | 바보새함석헌


함석헌 사상의 비교사상사적 의의
- 신비주의적 관점을 중심으로

오강남 (리자이나대학교 명예교수 종교학)

들어가는 말


제가 함석헌 선생님을 뵌 것은 몇 번에 지나지 않지만 제가 받은 강력한 인상으로 인해 이런 만남들을 아직까지 생생하게 기억하고 있습니다. 1963년 8월 대광 고등학교에서 시국 강연을 하실 때 수많은 청중에 끼어서 흰 두루마기를 입으신 함 선생님의 모습을 처음으로 뵈었고, 그 후 대중 강연 때 몇 번 뵌 적이 있습니다. 특히 1978년 제가 캐나다 에드먼튼에 있는 알버타 대학에서 가르칠 때 친구 김영호 교수의 주선으로 함 선생님이 알버타 대학 강당에서 교민들을 위해 강연하시고, 그 날 밤 저의 집에 묵으시고, 다음날 교수회관에서 종교학과 교수들과 대화하시던 모습은 지금도 눈에 보이는 듯합니다. 돌아가시기 얼마 전에 김영호 교수, 황필호 교수와 함께 우이동 댁으로 찾아 뵈었을 때 동경 유학시절 겪으셨던 관동지진 때의 경험을 들려주신 것도 또렷하게 기억하고 있습니다.


이런 몇 번의 행복한 만남에도 불구하고, 또 함 선생님의 글을 열심히 읽은 편이기는 하지만, 유감스럽게도, 저는 함석헌 선생님의 사상을 전문적으로나 체계적으로 연구할 수 있는 기회를 얻지 못했습니다. 작년 5월 이 모임에 참석했다가 박재순 교수님과 김성수 교수님이 저에게 이번 강연을 맡으시라고 강권하시는 바람에 전문가도 아닌 주제에 얼떨결에 수락하였다가 지난 1년 본격적으로 충분히 연구할 여유를 얻지도 못한 채 1년 내내 걱정만 하면서 시간을 다 보냈습니다. 이렇게 여러 전문 연구인들이 모인 자리에서 비전문가로서 말씀드리는 것이 송구스러울 따름입니다. 그저 평소 제가 비교종교학을 가르치면서 관심을 가지고 있던 몇 가지 문제와 연관해서 함 선생님 사상의 종교사적 의의를 부각시켜보려고 합니다. 제가 발표를 한다기 보다 그저 말머리를 트고 여러분의 고견에서 많은 것을 배우려는 마음으로 몇 마디 말씀드리는 것이라 이해해주시기 바랍니다.

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무엇보다 먼저 제가 강조하고 싶은 것은 다석 류영모 선생님이나 심천 함석헌 선생님의 사상은 세계적으로 각광을 받아야 마땅하다고 생각한다는 것입니다. 현재 세계의 많은 종교학자들이나 사상사 전공인들이 일본의 니시다 기타로(西田畿多郞, 1870-1940)나 스즈끼 다이세츠(鈴木大拙, 1970-1966))에 대해 이야기하고 연구하는 것을 보면서, 저는 류영모 선생님이나 함석헌 선생님에 대한 연구도 이에 못 미칠 이유가 없다고 봅니다. 몇 년 전 서울신대의 최인식 교수가 미국 종교학회에 참석했을 때 저는 그분에게 미국종교학회 연회에 함석헌 패널을 하나 만들어 함석헌 연구자들이 논문을 발표할 수 있는 기회를 갖도록 하는 것이 어떻겠느냐고 제안한 적이 있는데, 최인식 교수의 노력도 불구하고 아직 실현되지 않고 있는 것이 안타까운 일이라 생각합니다. 곧 그런 일이 성사되기 빕니다.


저는 이 논문에서 함석헌 선생님의 사상을 세계 종교사에서 면면히 흐르는 ‘신비주의’의 맥락에서 한번 구체적으로 짚어보고 그 의의를 되새겨 보고 싶습니다. 함 선생님이 스스로를 신비주의자로 의식하셨는지, 혹은 정말로 신비주의자이셨는지, 저로서는 잘 알지 못합니다. 그러나 그는 천안에서 씨알농장을 경영할 때 거기 모인 사람들과 매일 새벽 여섯시에 일어나 30분씩 명상의 시간을 가졌고,1) 또 퀘이커 교도로서 적어도 매주 한 시간씩의 침묵 예배, 곧 명상을 실천한 분이었습니다.훌륭한 종교라면 그 속에 ‘신비’가 있어야 함을 말씀하셨고,2) “나는 지금도 ‘그이’가 내 속에 말씀하시는 것을 듣는다”는 말씀도 하셨습니다. 

그러나 제가 강조하고 싶은 것은 무엇보다 그의 사상을 전체적으로 살펴보면 그것이 세계 종교 전통의 심층에 보편적으로 흐르는 신비주의 전통과 맥을 같이 하고 있다는 사실을 발견하게 된다는 것입니다. 저는 이 짧은 글에서 신비주의에 대해 약간 언급하고, 제가 언제나 관심을 가지고 있는 네 가지 관점에서 함 선생님의 사상이 어떻게 신비주의 전통들과 맞닿아 있는가를 잠시 살펴보고자 합니다. 물론 이 네 가지 관점이란 서로 연관되어 있어서 완전히 독립된 항목들은 아니지만 편의상 그냥 네 가지 정도로 간추려 보는 것뿐입니다.


신비주의란 무엇인가?

‘신비주의’라고 하면 일반적으로 부정적인 시각으로 보기 일쑤입니다. ‘신비주의’라는 말의 애매성 때문이라 할 수 있습니다. 똑 같은 말은 아니지만 신비주의라는 말 대신 ‘영성’이라는 말이라든가, 라이프니츠가 창안한 ‘영속철학(perennial philosophy)’이라는 말을 쓰는 이도 있지만 이런 말들도 모호하기는 마찬가지입니다.3)

이런 애매함이나 모호함을 덜기 위해 독일어에서는 신비주의와 관련하여 두 가지 말을 사용하고 있습니다. 
부정적인 뜻으로서의 신비주의를 ‘Mystismus’라고 합니다. 일반적으로 영매, 육체이탈, 점성술, 마술, 천리안 등 초자연 현상이나 그리스도교 부흥회에서 흔히 발견되는 열광적 흥분, 신유체험 등과 같은 것을 지칭하는 말입니다. 이런 일에 관심을 보이거나 거기에 관여하는 사람을 ‘Mystizist’라 합니다. 
이와는 대조적으로 종교의 가장 깊은 면, 인간의 말로 표현할 수 없는 순수한 종교적 체험을 목표로 하는 신비주의‘Mystik’이라 하고 이와 관계되거나 이런 일을 경험하는 사람을 ‘Mystiker’라 합니다. 함석헌 선생님의 사상이 ‘신비주의’ 전통과 맥을 같이 한다고 할 때 제가 말씀드리는 신비주의는 물론 후자에 속한 것입니다.

신비주의에 대한 정의로 중세 이후 많이 쓰이던 ‘cognitio Dei experimentalis’라는 말이 있습니다. ‘하느님을 체험적으로 인식하기’입니다. 하느님, 절대자, 궁극실재를 아는 것입니다. 그러나 이 때 ‘안다’고 하는 것은 이론이나 추론이나 개념이나 논리나 교설이나 문자를 통하거나 다른 사람이 하는 권위 있는 말을 믿는 믿음을 통해서 아는 것이 아니라, 내 자신의 영적 눈이 열림을 통해, 내 자신의 내면적 깨달음을 통해, 직접적으로, 체험적으로 안다는 것을 의미합니다. 사실 “종교에서 이런 신비주의적 요소가 없는 종교는 진정한 의미에서 종교라 할 수 없다.”고 볼 수 있습니다.4) 그래도 ‘신비주의’라는 말이 거슬린다고 생각하시면, 일단은 그것을 ‘심층 종교’나 ‘열린 종교’ 등으로 바꾸어 읽으셔도 좋으리라 생각합니다.

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함석헌 사상의 비교사상사적 의의


1. 문자주의를 극복하고 신앙에서 자라가라



“경전의 생명은 그 정신에 있으므로 늘 끊임없이 고쳐 해석하여야 한다.... 소위 정통주의라 하여 믿음의 살고 남은 껍질인 경전의 글귀를 그대로 지키려는 가엾은 것들은 사정없는 역사의 행진에 버림을 당할 것이다. 아니다, 역사가 버리는 것이 아니라 자기네가 스스로 역사를 버리는 것이다.”5)


“신앙은 생장기능(生長機能)을 가지고 있다. 이 생장은 육체적 생명에서도 그 특성의 하나이지만, 신앙에 있어서도 그러하다. 신앙에서 신앙으로 자라나 마침내 완전한 데 이르는 것이 산 신앙이다.”6)



종교적 진술을 문자적으로 이해하려는 “근본주의적 태도”는 종교의 더욱 깊은 뜻을 이해하는데 가장 큰 걸림돌이 됩니다. 이런 근본주의적 문자주의는 어느 종교에나 다 있는 일이지만 특히 유대교, 그리스도교, 이슬람에 두드러지게 나타나는 현상입니다.7) 신학자 폴 틸리히가 적절히 지적한 것처럼, “성경을 문자적으로 읽으면 심각하게 받아들일 수 없고, 심각하게 받아들이려면 문자적으로 읽을 수 없다”는 것이 사실입니다.


미국의 종교 심리학자 윌리엄 제임스(William James, 1842-1910)는 신비 체험의 네 가지 특징 중 하나가 ‘말로 표현할 수 없음(ineffability)’이라고 하였습니다.8) <도덕경>1장 첫머리에 언급된 것처럼 “말로 표현한 도는 진정한 도가 아니라”는 것입니다. 궁극 실재나 진리는 말로 표현할 수 없으므로 말의 표피적이고 문자적인 뜻에 사로잡히지 말고 그야말로 ‘불립문자(不立文字)’의 입장을 취해야 한다는 것입니다. 세계의 여러 신비 전통에서는 언제나 표피적인 의미와 심층적인 의미를 분간하고 표피적인 의미를 지나 심층적인 뜻을 간파하라고 가르칩니다. 가장 잘 알려진 예로 경전이나 의식 등 외부적인 것들은 결국 “달을 가리키는 손가락”이라고 강조하는 선불교의 가르침을 들 수 있을 것입니다.


제가 여기서 특히 소개하고 싶은 것은 종교적 진술의 뜻을 좀 더 세분하여 네 가지 차원이 있다고 하는 초기 그리스도교 영지주의(Gnosticism)의 가르침입니다.9) 그리스도교 영지주의, 혹은 영지주의적 그리스도교에서는 모든 종교적 진술에는 적어도 다음과 같이 네 가지 차원이 있다고 주장합니다.


1) 물리적(physical, hylic, 땅) 차원,
2) 심리적(psychological, psychic, 물) 차원,
3) 영적(spiritual, pneumatic, 공기=영) 차원,
4) 신비적(mystical, gnostic, 불) 차원입니다.



첫째 차원은 종교와 별로 관계가 없는 일상적 차원입니다. 이른바 육이나 땅에 속한 사람들이 종교와 상관없이 살아가면서 눈에 보이는 데 따라 극히 표피적으로 이해하는 세상입니다. 이들이 종교에 관심을 갖고 물로 세례를 받으면 둘째 차원으로 들어가는데, 이 단계에서는 예수의 죽음, 부활, 재림 등의 종교적 진술이나 이야기를 ‘문자적’인 뜻으로 받아들이고 이런 문자적인 의미에서 일종의 심리적 기쁨이나 안위를 얻습니다. ‘그리스도교의 외적 비밀(the Outer Mysteries of Christianity)’에 접한 것입니다. 여기서 나아가 영으로 세례를 받으면 예수의 죽음과 부활과 재림 등의 이야기가 전해주는 셋째 차원의 뜻, 곧 ‘은유적(allegorical)’ 혹은 ‘신화적(mythical)’ 혹은 영적 의미를 파악한 영적 사람이 됩니다. 이들이 바로 그리스도교의 내적 비밀(the Inner Mysteries of Christianity)에 접한 사람들입니다. 이들이 더 나아가 최종적으로 불로 세례를 받으면 그리스도와 하나 됨이라는 신비 체험에 이르고, 더 이상 문자적이나 은유적이나 영적인 차원의 뜻이 필요 없는 경지에 이르는 것입니다.10)


함 선생님은 이와 완전히 같지는 않지만 삶의 단계 혹은 의식의 단계를 다음과 같이 말했습니다:


“생명에는 세 단계가 있다. 맨 밑은 물질이고 그 다음은 마음이고 맨 위에 영 혹은 정신이다. 우리의 생명은 육체에서 시작하여 영에까지 자라는 것이다. 육체에는 자유가 없다. 온전히 물질에 의존한다. 영은 순전히 자유하다.

“평화운동은 전체의식이 없이는 될 수 없다. 우리는 하나다 하는 자각이 모든 가치활동의 근원이 된다.... 그 의식이 없을 때 그것을 이루는 각 분자는 이기주의에 떨어질 수밖에 없고 따라서 배타적이 되므로 거기는 싸움이 일어나고야 만다.”11)

저는 이를 쉽게 이해할 수 있도록 하기 위해서 크리스마스와 산타크로스 이야기를 즐겨 사용합니다. 어릴 때는 내가 착한 어린이가 되면 크리스마스 이브에 산타 할아버지가 와서 벽난로 옆에 걸린 양말에 선물을 잔뜩 집어넣고 간다는 것을 문자 그대로 믿습니다. 산타 이야기는 그 아이에게 기쁨과 희망과 의미의 원천이기도 합니다. 일 년 내내 싼타 할아버지의 선물을 위해 착한 아이가 되려고 애를 씁니다.

나이가 들면서 자기 동네에 500집이 있는데, 싼타 할아버지가 어떻게 그 많은 집에 한꺼번에 찾아와 선물을 주고 갈 수 있는가, 우리 집 굴뚝은 특별히 좁은데 그 뚱뚱한 싼타 할아버지가 어떻게 굴뚝을 타고 내려올 수 있는가, 학교에서 배운 바에 의하면 지금 오스트랄리아에는 여름이라 눈이 없다는데 어떻게 썰매를 타고 갈 수 있을까 하는 등의 의심이 들기 시작합니다. 그러다가 어느 날은 자기 아빠 엄마가 양말에 선물을 넣는 것을 보게 되었습니다. “아, 크리스마스는 식구들끼리 서로 사랑을 나누는 시간이구나. 나도 엄마 아빠, 동생에게 선물을 해야지.”하는 단계로 올라갑니다. 싼타 이야기의 문자적 의미를 넘어선 것입니다. 예전처럼 여전히 즐거운 마음으로 똑 같이 “징글벨, 징글벨”을 불러도 이제 자기가 싼타 할아버지에게서 선물을 받는다는 생각보다는 선물을 서로 주고받는 일이 더욱 의미있고 아름다운 일이라는 생각을 하게 됩니다.

좀 더 나이가 들어 크리스마스와 싼타 이야기는 교회 교인 전부, 혹은 온 동네 사람들 전부가 다 같이 축제에 참여하여 서로 선물이나 카드를 주고받음으로 즐거움을 나누고 사회적 유대를 더욱 강화하는 기회가 된다는 것을 깨닫게 됩니다. 좀 더 장성하면, 사실 장성한다고 다 이런 단계에 이르는 것은 아니지만, 아무튼 더욱 성숙된 안목을 갖게 되면 크리스마스 이야기는 하느님이 땅으로 내려오시고 인간이 그를 영접한다는 천지합일의 신비적 의미를 해마다 경축하고 재연한다는 의미도 있을 수 있구나 하는 것까지 알게 됩니다.

물론 이 예화에서 싼타 이야기의 문자적 의미, 윤리적 의미, 사회공동체적 의미, 신비적 의미 등 점진적으로 심화된 의미를 알아보게 되는 과정이 영지주의에서 말하는 네 가지 발전단계와 완전히 일치하는 것은 아니지만, 적어도 깊은 신앙이란 문자주의를 극복하고 이를 초월함으로써 가능하다는 것을 말하는 점에서 맥을 같이 한다고 볼 수 있을 것입니다.

저는 함 선생님의 기본 가르침이 이처럼 문자주의를 극복함으로 종교의 진수에 접하라는 권고라고 생각합니다. 함 선생님은 젊은 시절부터 성서를 읽되 문자적으로 읽기를 거부하고 성서에서 그 당시 조선인들에게 성서가 줄 수 있는 더 깊은 ‘뜻’을 찾아내려고 했습니다. 성서뿐만 아니라 그의 전 생애를 통해 동서고금의 종교 문헌을 섭렵하면서 그런 문헌의 문자 뒤에 담긴 뜻을 우리에게 전하려고 했습니다. 이 말은 그가 문자주의의 제한성을 넘어서 종교적 진술이나 예식을 “상징적으로” “은유적으로” 읽었다는 것을 의미합니다. 이렇게 문자주의를 극복할 때 우리의 신앙은 계속 자라나 “완전한 데” 이를 수 있다고 보신 것입니다.


2. 참나를 찾으라


“하나님의 구체적인 모습이 민중이요 민중 속에 살아 있는 산 힘이 하나님이다.”
“하나님은 다른 데선 만날 데가 없고, 우리 마음속에, 생각하는 데서만 만날 수가 있다.”
“자기를 존경함은 자기 안에 하나님을 믿음이다....그것이 자기발견이다.”12)


영국 사상가로서 The Perennial Philosophy 라는 책을 쓴 올더스 헉슬리(Aldous Huxley)는 세계 여러 종교의 신비주의 전통에서 발견되는 공통점들을 열거하면서 힌두교에서 말하는 “tat tvam asi,” 곧 범아일여(梵我一如) 개념을 첫 번째 항목으로 들었습니다.13) 헉슬리의 말을 빌리지 않더라도 우리가 관찰할 수 있는 세계 신비주의 전통들을 살펴보면 한결같이 “신이 내 속에 있다,” “가장 깊은 면에서 신과 나는 결국 하나다” 하는 생각을 강조하고 있습니다. 여기서 한 가지 주의해야 할 점은 이런 신관은 신의 내재(內在)만을 주장하고 신의 초월(超越)을 무시하거나 신과 나를 전혀 구별하지 않고 양자를 완전히 동일시하는 범신론(汎神論, pantheism)과 분명히 구별해야 한다는 것입니다. 신비주의 전통에서 공통적으로 보이는 입장은 나와 신을 구별하여 신의 초월성을 인정하면서 동시에 신의 내재성을 함께 수납하는 이른바 범재신론(汎在神論, panentheism)적 신관이라 할 수 있습니다

범재신론은 다른 모든 사물에서와 마찬가지로 “내 ‘속에’ 신적인 요소가 있다,” “나의 바탕은 신적인 것이다”, “나의 가장 밑 바탕은 신의 차원과 닿아 있다” 하는 것을 강조합니다. 말하자면 신의 초월과 동시에 내재를 함께 강조하는 ‘변증법적 유신론’이라 할 수도 있습니다.14) 세계 신비전통에 나타나는 이런 유형의 신관 몇 개 만 예로 들어 봅니다.

가장 잘 알려진 것으로 “내 속에 불성이 있다”고 하는 것을 강조하는 불교의 불성 사상이라 할 수 있습니다. 이를 좀 더 구체적으로 표현한 것이 바로 “여래장(如來藏, tathāgatagarbha) 사상입니다. ‘장(garbha)’이라는 말은 ‘태반(matrix)’과 ‘태아(fetus)’라는 이중적인 뜻을 가지고 있기에 우리는 모두 생래적으로 여래 곧 부처님의 ‘씨앗’과 그 씨앗을 싹트게 할 ‘바탕’을 내장하고 있다는 뜻입니다. 인간이란 너나 할 것 없이 모두 이 잠재적 요소를 깨닫고 성불할 수 있는 가능성을 지니고 있다는 생각입니다.


이와 덧붙여 한마디 할 수 있는 것은 부처님이 출생하자 말자 “천상천하 유아독존(天上天下唯我獨尊)”이라고 했다는 말을 두고서도 여기의 ‘나(我)’란 ‘고타마 싯다르다’라는 역사적 개인을 지칭하는 것이 아니라 내 속에 있는 불성, 혹은 ‘참나’를 가리키는 말이므로 이 참나야 말로 천상천하에서 오로지 높임을 받아 마땅한 것이라 풀이할 수 있다고 봅니다. 만약 이런 풀이가 가능하다면 예수님이 “나는 길이요 진리요 생명”이라고 했을 때 그 ‘나’도 결국 역사적 예수를 지칭하는 것이라 보기보다 “아브라함 보다 먼저” 있었던 그리스도, 그의 바탕이 되는 신적 요소, 그의 참나를 가리키는 말로 이해할 수도 있을 것이라 봅니다.15)


물론 예수님도 직접 “내가 아버지 안에 있고 아버지께서 내 안에 계시다”(요14:10)고 했습니다. 사도 바울도 “나는 그리스도와 함께 십자가에 못 박혔습니다. 이제 살고 있는 것은 내가 아닙니다. 그리스도께서 내 안에서 살고 계십니다.”(갈2:20)고 했습니다. 이런 것을 보면 그리스도교 초기부터 신성의 내재라는 신비주의적 특색을 강조하는 저류가 강했음을 알 수 있습니다. 비록 콘스탄티누스 황제의 정치적 의도에 의해 그리스도교 내에서 이런 신비적 흐름이 억눌리고 문자주의적 그리스도인들이 득세하는 비극이 초래되기는 했지만 이런 사상은 그리스도교 전통 속에 면면히 이어져 온 것 또한 사실입니다. 중세 가장 위대한 그리스도교 신비 사상가 마이스터 에크하르트(Meister Eckhart, 1260-1328)도 “영혼 속에는 창조되지도 않았고 창조될 수도 없는 무엇이 있다”고 했고 그 외의 많은 신비주의 그리스도 사상가들이 우리 속에 있는 그리스도, 그리스도의 씨앗, 그리스도의 탄생 등에 대해 계속 이야기합니다. 특히 지금까지 기독교 신비 전통의 한 가닥을 이어가고 있는 퀘이커교에서는 우리 속에 있는 신적인 요소를 ‘신의 한 부분(that part of God)’ 혹은 ‘내적 빛(inner light)’이라는 말로 표현합니다.

어느 종교보다도 신의 초월을 강조하는 이슬람교에서조차 신의 내재를 동시에 역설하는 수피(Sufi) 전통이 있습니다. 그들은 신이 내 “우리의 핏줄보다도 우리에게 가까운 분”이라는 쿠란의 말을 근거로 하여 신의 내재성과 ‘신에로의 몰입’을 주장합니다. “만물 안에 내재한 그 일자(一者)를 보라”고 가르칩니다.

동양 사상 중 특히 ‘우리가 한울님을 모시고 있다’는 것을 강조하는 동학의 시천주(侍天主) 사상도 이와 맥을 같이 한다고 봅니다.

저는 우리 속에 있는 신적 요소, 혹은 내재적 하느님 사상을 학생들에게 더욱 이해하기 쉽도록 하기 위해, 물론 얼마간의 무리와 오해의 위험이 있음을 알면서도, 저 나름대로 이렇게 설명합니다. 우리가 ‘나’라고 할 때 제일 먼저 나를 나의 ‘몸’과 동일시하는 것이 보통입니다. 몸이 아프면 바로 ‘내가’ 아픈 것입니다. 그러나 가만히 생각해보면 우리가 ‘나의 몸’이라고 하는 것은 나와 몸이 하나가 아니고 몸은 ‘나’라고 하는 무엇이 가지고 있는 소유물이라는 뜻입니다. 그러면 몸을 소유하고 있는 나는 무엇인가? 마음인가? 그러나 여기서도 역시 ‘나의 마음’이라고 하는 것을 보면 마음의 소유자, 주인이 마음과 별도로 존재한다는 뜻입니다. 그러면 영혼이 나인가? 역시 마찬가지로 ‘나의’ 영혼이라고 하는 것을 보면 영혼이 주인이 아니고 영혼을 소유하고 있는 ‘나’라고 하는 더 근본적인 주인이 따로 있다는 뜻입니다. 그러면 나의 몸도, 마음도, 영혼도 아닌 그 근본 주인, 그 소유자, 그 바탕이 무엇인가? 우리는 그것을 ‘참 나,’ 혹은 내 속에 있는 ‘신적 요소,’ ‘내 속의 하느님’이라 할 수 있지 않겠는가 하고 설명해 봅니다.


중세 그리스도교 신비주의자 제노아의 성 캐더린(St. Catherine of Genoa)의 말: “나의 나는 하느님이다. 내 하느님 자신 이외에 다른 나를 볼 수 없다.”(My Me is God, nor do I recognize any other Me except my God Himself.)16)고 한 것은 나의 진정한 나는 결국 신일 수밖에 없다는 생각을 잘 표현한 것이라 여겨집니다.17)


물론 이런 이론적 설명이 완전히 만족스러운 것은 아닙니다. 이런 설명과 함께 명상을 권장하기도 합니다. 깊은 명상 속에서 우리는 나의 몸이나 감정이나 마음 상태를 관찰하는 ‘또 하나의 나’를 의식하게 됩니다. 다시 가만히 보면 나의 몸이나 감정이나 마음 상태를 관찰하는 그 또 하나의 나를 관찰하는 또 다른 관찰자를 의식합니다. 이런 식으로 거슬러 올라가면 한이 없기에 이쯤에서 일단 이렇게 나의 몸이나 감정이나 마음을 관찰하는 또 하나의 나를 의식하고, 이 또 하나의 나는 일상적이고 일차적인 나와 다른 나가 아닌가, 이 나가 하느님의 일부이든가 아직 하나님의 일부가 아니면 하나님에 가까운 나, 혹은 내 속에서 하느님과 맞닿은 부분이 아닌가 하는 생각을 할 수 있다고 말해주기도 합니다. 함 선생님도 이와 비슷하게 하나님을 만나는 것은 “시간·공간을 다 잊어버리고 내 마음을 될수록 순수하게, 잡념을 없애고” 해야 한다고 했습니다.


저는 함석헌 선생님이 말씀하시는 ‘씨알’이라는 것도 이런 관점에서 다시 음미해 볼 필요가 있다고 생각합니다.18) 물론 ‘씨알’이라는 말이 때 묻지 않은 ‘맨사람,’ 근본을 잃지 않고 인위적인 것으로 덧씌워지지 않은 민중을 뜻하는 것만은 분명합니다. 그러나 “씨알의 알은 하늘에서 온 것이다. 하늘은 한 얼이다. 하늘에서 와서 우리 속에 있는 것이 알이다.”19)하는 말이나 “정말 있는 것은 ‘알’ 뿐이다.... 그 한 ‘알’이 이 끝에서는 나로 알려져 있고, 저 끝에서는 하나님, 하늘, 뿌리로 알려져 있다.”20)고 한 말을 보면 적어도 씨알의 ‘알’은 우리 속에 공통적으로 내재한 신적 요소, 혹은 신과 인간이 맞닿아 있는 경지를 일컫는 말이라 이해해도 무리가 아니라는 생각이 듭니다.


이런 몇 가지 관점에서 볼 때 함석헌 선생님의 가르침은 근본적으로 세계 신비주의 전통 속에서도 가장 중요시되는 신인합일, 신인무애(無礙), 신과 만물의 융합, 라틴어로 ‘unio mystica’의 사상을 함의하고 있다고 하여 틀 릴 것이 없다고 생각합니다. 다음 글에서 함 선생님의 이런 사상이 그리스도교적 표현으로 압축된 것 같아 인용합니다:


나는 역사적 예수를 믿는 것이 아니다. 믿는 것은 그리스도다. 그 그리스도는 영원한 그리스도가 아니면 안 된다. 그는 예수에게만 아니라 본질적으로는 내 속에도 있다. 그 그리스도를 통하여 예수와 나는 서로 다른 인격이 아니라 하나라는 체험에 들어갈 수 있다. 그 때에 비로소 그의 죽음은 나의 육체의 죽음이요, 그의 부활은 내 영의 부활이 된다. 속죄는 이렇게 해서만 성립된다. <하나님의 발길에 채여서>


3. 우주공동체에서 평화를 체현하라


“평화주의가 이긴다.
인도주의가 이긴다.
사랑이 이긴다.
영원을 믿는 마음이 이긴다.“21)


세계 신비주의 전통에서는 나와 하느님이 하나임을 말함과 동시에 나와 다른 이들, 다른 사물들과도 결국 일체임을 깨닫는 것이 중요하다고 강조합니다.


마이스터 에크하르트가 말했습니다. “어떤 경우가 천박한 이해인가? 나는 답하노라. ‘하나의 사물을 다른 것들과 분리된 것으로 볼 때’ 라고. 그리고 어떤 경우가 이런 천박한 이해를 넘어서는 것인가? 나는 말할 수 있노라. ‘모든 것이 모든 것 안에 있음을 깨닫고 천박한 이해를 넘어섰을 때’ 라고.”22)


물론 이런 사상을 가장 극명하고 조직적으로 개진하는 사상체계는 중국 불교의 화엄종(華嚴宗)이라 할 수 있을 것입니다. 화엄에서는 이사무애법계(理事無礙法界)사사무애법계(事事無礙法界)라는 기본 원칙을 강조합니다. 보편적 원리로서의 이(理)와 개별적 사물로서의 사(事)가 아무 거침이 없이 서로 융통한다는 일즉다 다즉일(一卽多 多卽一) 생각을 기초로 하여, 이제 모든 사물 자체가 상즉·상입(相卽相入)한다는 것까지 강조하고 있습니다. 요즘 말로 고치면 모든 사물은 상호연관, 상호의존의 관계를 가지고 있다는 생각입니다. 나와 하느님만이 하나가 아니라 나와 너, 나와 만물이, 만물과 만물이 궁극적 차원에서는 하나라는 가르침입니다. 유기체적(organic), 통전적(holistic) 세계관입니다.


함 선생님은 “내 속에 참 나가 있다,” “이 육체와 거기 붙은 모든 감각·감정은 내가 아니다,” “나의 참 나는 죽지도 않고, 늙지도 않고, 변하지도 않고 더러워지지도 않는다”고 하면서, 그러나 이것만으로는 부족하고 나와 일체가 하나임을 알아야 함을 강조했습니다.


“나는 나 혼자만 있는 것이 아니다. 남과 같이 있다. 그 남들과 관련 없이 나는 있을 수 없다. 그러므로 나와 남이 하나인 것을 믿어야 한다. 나·남이 떨어져 있는 한, 나는 어쩔 수 없는 상대적인 존재다. 그러므로 나·남이 없어져야 새로 난 ‘나’다. 그러므로 남이 없이, 그것이 곧 나다 하고 믿어야 한다. 다른 사람만 아니라, 모든 생물, 무생물까지도 다 티끌까지도 다 나임을 믿어야 한다.”23)


저는 이런 유기체적이고 통전적인 세계관을 설명하기 위해 학생들에게 자기 뺨을 만져보라고 합니다. 거기에서 부모님을 발견하고 조부모님, 증조부모님, 나아가 수없이 많은 조상들, 그리고 그들이 살아가기 위해 필요했던 공기, 물, 비, 구름, 햇빛, 음식, 음식 만드는데 필요한 도구, 도구를 만든 사람들, 그들이 농사짓는데 필요했던 토양, 씨앗, 시간과 공간 등등 이런 모든 것이 지금 내 뺨에 함께 존재하는 것을 느껴보라고 합니다. 가만히 생각해보면 나는 온통 나 아닌 것들로만 구성되어 있다고 볼 수도 있습니다. ‘나’라는 개인은 이 모든 것과 상즉상입의 관계를 벗어나서는 존재할 수도 없고 의미도 없는 셈입니다. 저는 이렇게 온 우주가 서로 연관되었음을 깨닫는 것이 바로 ‘우주 공동체’를 새로이 발견하는 일이라 주장합니다.


이렇게 나와 너, 만물이 서로 관련을 맺고 있다는 것을 깨닫는 것이 실제 삶과 무슨 연관이 있는가 반문할 수 있습니다. 사실 세계 여러 신비주의 전통에서 가르치는 것들은 단순히 논리 정연한 이론적 체계를 구축하겠다는 뜻이 아닙니다. 일견 복잡하기 그지없이 보이는 교설들도 사실은 이른바 ‘구원론적 의도(soteriological intent)’를 가진 것입니다. 헉슬리가 말한 것처럼 “진정한 신비주의자들은 이론적이면서도 동시에 실제적”입니다.24)


이런 통전적, 유기적 세계관에서 어떤 실제적 유익을 얻을 수 있습니까? 여러 가지를 들 수 있겠지만, 저는 만물의 일체감에서 세계의 고통을 ‘함께 아파하는’ 자비(compassion)의 마음을 가질 수 있고, 이런 아픔을 줄이려는 노력으로 평화로운 세상의 구현을 위해 힘쓰게 된다는 점을 특히 부각하고자 합니다.


함 선생님도 이런 사실을 잘 알고 있었습니다. 그는 평화운동이 감상적이거나 윤리적 차원에 근거하는 것이 아니라 ‘모두가 하나’라고 보는 더욱 근본적인 우주관에 기초하지 않으면 안 된다고 하면서, “평화운동은 전체의식 없이는 될 수 없다. 우리는 하나다 하는 자각이 모든 가치 활동의 근원이 되어야 한다.... 그 의식이 없을 때 그것을 이루는 각 분자는 이기주의에 떨어질 수밖에 없고 따라서 배타적이 되므로 거기는 싸움이 일어나고야 만다.”25) 고 한 말이나 “사랑은 하나 됨이다. 둘이면서 하나 됨이다. 둘이면서 둘인 줄을 모를 뿐 아니라, 하나면서 하나인 줄을 모를이만큼 하나여야 할 것이다.”26)고 한 그의 말이 이를 뒷받침하고 있습니다.

모두가 하나 됨으로 남의 고통을 나의 고통으로 여기고 남이 아플 때 나도 아파하는 일종의 보살 정신입니다. 틱낫한 스님이 제창한 참여불교(Engaged Buddhism) 운동처럼 올바른 세계관에 입각한 사회참여의 정신입니다. 함 선생님은 제가 보기 ‘행동하는’ 신비주의를 몸소 보이주고 실천하신 분이라 생각합니다.


4. 종교 상호간의 보완과 조화를 중시하라


“우리의 생각이 좁아서는 안 되겠지요. 우주의 법칙, 생명의 법칙이 다원적이기 때문에 나와 달라도 하나로 되어야지요. 사람 얼굴도 똑같은 것은 없지 않아요? 생명이 본래 그런 건데, 종교와 사상에서만은 왜 나와 똑 같아야 된다고 하느냐 말이야요. 생각이 좁아서 그렇지요. 다양한 생명이 자라나야겠는데....”27)

앞에서 말한 우주공동체에서의 평화운동과 궤를 같이 하는 이야기이지만 여기서 특히 종교다원주의적 자세에 대해 별도로 언급하고자 합니다. 일반적으로 신비주의 전통에서는 자기만 옳다고 하는 독선적 주장이 별로 없습니다. 앞에서 지적한 것과 마찬가지로 신비주의 전통에서는 궁극적 실재가 인간의 이성으로 완전히 파악될 수 없다는 것을 너무나 잘 알고 있기 때문에 말이나 문자로 표현된 것에 절대적 타당성을 인정하지 않습니다. 한 가지 예로 불교에서 말하는 ‘공(空)’ 사상은 궁극 실재에 대한 우리 인간의 견해(見解)는 그 타당성이 전혀 없다, ‘비었다’는 것을 단적으로 말해주는 사상 체계입니다. 모든 견해가 이럴 진데 나의 견해만 예외적으로 절대로 옳다고 주장할 수가 없습니다.


이와 함께 신비주의 전통에서는 단순한 이분법적 사고를 지양하고 사물을 더욱 깊은, 더욱 높은, 더욱 넓은, 더욱 많은 관점에서 보려고 노력하기 때문에 어느 특정 관점에서 본 한 가지 의견을 절대적이라고 주장할 수 없는 것입니다. 궁극 실재가 무한히 크면서 동시에 무한히 작다고 하는 ‘역설’의 논리가 무리 없이 수용됩니다. <장자>의 “제물론(齊物論)”에 나오는 ‘조삼모사(朝三暮四)’ 이야기 중 원숭이 훈련사의 경우처럼 양쪽을 다 보는 ‘양행(兩行)’의 태도를 보입니다. 똑 같은 커피 잔이 위에서 보면 둥글지만 앞에서 보면 네모라는 것을 아는 것입니다. 이런 태도를 요즘말로 바꾸면 시각주의(perspectivalism)이라고 할 수 있습니다. 모든 것은 어느 시각, 어느 관점에서 보느냐에 따라 달리 보일 수 있다는 뜻입니다. 자연히 함 선생님처럼 “글쎄요”의 태도를 가질 수밖에 없습니다.28) 하나의 시각, 하나의 관점을 절대화할 수 없고 다원적인 시각의 상대적 타당성을 인정할 뿐입니다.


이런 태도를 다종교(多宗敎) 현상에 적용하면 자연스럽게 종교 다원주의적 태도를 가질 수밖에 없습니다. 어느 한 종교의 가르침만을 절대적 진리라 주장하는 배타적 태도를 견지할 수 없게 됩니다.29) 이런 의미에서 신비주의와 종교 다원주의적 태도는 동전의 양면과 같은 관계, 혹은 나무와 그 열매와 같은 관계라 할 수 있을 것입니다. 함 선생님이 세계 신비주의 전통과 맥을 같이 한다는 말은 함 선생님은 세계 종교들을 다룰 때 다원주의를 견지할 수밖에 없는 분이라는 것을 의미한다고 생각합니다.30)


여기서 이 문제를 길게 논의하는 대신 함 선생님의 말씀 하나를 인용하고 그칩니다:


“나는 갈수록 퀘이커가 좋습니다. 좋은 이유는...‘우리 교회에 오셔요’, ‘이것 아니고는 구원 없습니다’ 식의 전도가 없고, 있다면 그저 밭고랑에 입 다물고 일하는 농부처럼 잘됐거나 못됐거나, 살림을 통해서 하는 전도가 있을 뿐입니다....그들은 자연스럽고, 속이 넓으면서도 정성스럽습니다. 누가 와도, 불교도가 오거나, 유니테리안이 오거나, 무신론자가 온다해도, 찾는 마음에서 오기만 하면 환영입니다. 그러니 좋지 않습니까?”31)


나가는 말


20세기 가장 위대한 가톨릭 신학자로 알려진 칼 라너(Karl Rahner, 1904-1984)는 21세기 그리스도교가 신비주의적으로 변하지 않으면 아무 것도 아닌 존재가 되고 말 것이라 예견했습니다. 그리스도교가 신비주의적 차원으로 심화되지 않으면 망하고 만다는 뜻입니다. 어찌 그리스도교뿐이겠습니까? 저는 모든 종교가 궁극적으로 도달해야 할 경지는 결국 신비주의적 차원이라 확신합니다.32)


물론 지금까지 이런 신비주의적 차원에 접한 종교인들은 그 숫자가 극소수에 불과합니다. 거의 모든 종교의 신도들이 문자주의적, 교리 중심적, 기복주의적, 자기중심적, 배타주의적 종교에 속해 있으면서도 그것이 참된 종교가 이를 수 있는 구경의 경지가 아니라는 사실도 모르고 있는 실정입니다. 이제 이런 비극적 사태가 개선되므로 더욱 많은 이들이 종교의 신비주의적 차원에 접할 수 있어야 한다고 생각합니다.


독일 여성 신학자 도로테 죌레(Dorothee Soelle, 1929-2003)는 최근에 펴낸 그의 The Silent Cry: Mysticism and Resistance  라는 책에서 신비주의 체험이 역사적으로 특수한 몇몇 사람에서만 기대할 수 있는 무엇이라는 선입견을 버리고, 그것이 모든 사람에게도 보편적으로 가능한 것으로 인정해야 할 것이라고 역설하며, 이른바 ‘신비주의의 민주화(democratization of mysticism)’를 주창했습니다.33) 저도 이 말에 전적으로 동감합니다.


저는 이번 이 논문을 쓰기 위해 함석헌 선생님의 글을 다시 읽으면서 다시 한 번 함 선생님의 신비주의적 사상이 바로 21세기를 살아가는 우리 모두를 이끌 수 있는 사상이며, 함석헌 선생님이야 말로 이런 ‘신비주의의 민주화’에 앞장서신 분이었구나 하는 확신을 더욱 공고하게 할 수 있었습니다. 저는 여기에 바로 함석헌 선생님의 비교사상사적 의의가 있다고 주장하며 이 글을 마칩니다. 감사합니다.

====

1) 김성수, <함석헌 평전> (삼인, 2001), p. 105 참조.

2) “하워드 브린튼이 퀘이커리즘을 서양에서 난 종교들 중 가장 동양적인 것을 가진 종교다 그랬는데....하여간 비슷하게 동양적인 그런 게 있는 것은 사실이오. 신비를 인정하는 거지요.” (<함석헌 전집15>p. 51), 김성수, 위의 책 p. 126에서 재인용.

3) 또 다른 분류법으로 종교의 ‘표의적(exoteric)’ 차원과 ‘밀의적(esoteric)’ 차원을 말하는 사람들이 있고, 필자도 다른 글에서는 표피적(surface) 차원 vs. 심층적(depth) 차원, 닫힌 종교 vs. 열린 종교로 분류했다. 졸저 <예수가 외면한 그 한가지 질문>(현암사, 2002), Frithjof Schuon, The Transcendent Unity of Religions (New York: Quest Books, 1984) 등 참조.

4) 필자는 이 말을 대학 시절 읽은 김하태 박사의 글에서 접하고, 그 이후 신비주의 문제에 관심을 가지게 되었다. 신비주의와 신비체험의 특징에 대해서는 이 방면의 고전이라 할 수 있는 William James, The Varieties of Religious Experiece (New York: Collier Books, 1961), Aldous Huxley, The Perennial Philosophy (New York: Harper & Row, 1944) 외에 최근의 책 John Macquarrie, Two Worlds Are Ours: An Introduction to Christian Mysticism (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004), pp. 1-34 등을 참조할 수 있음.

5) 김진 엮음, <너 자신을 혁명하라: 함석헌 명상집>(오늘의 책, 2003), p. 160에서 인용.

6) <함석헌 전집 9>, p. 200.


7) 문자주의의 문제성과 해독에 대해서는 졸저 <예수는 없다>(현암사, 2001) pp. 63-115 참조. Timothy Freke & Peter Gandy, The Laughing Jesus (New York: Harmony Books, 2005)는 기독교와 이슬람의 문자주의의 해독을 구체적으로 예시하고 있다.

8) 다른 세 가지 특성은 ‘얼른 지나감(transiency)’ ‘직관적(noetic quality), ‘피동성(passivity)’이라고 했다. 그의 앞의 책 참조할 것.

9) ‘Gnosticism’을 보통 ‘영지주의(靈知主義)’라고 번역하는데 필자는 이를 “깨달음주심주의”라 번역하고 싶다. 그러나 편의를 위해서 여기서는 그대로 ‘영지주의’라는 말을 사용하기로 한다. 영지주의에 대한 최근의 책으로 하버드 대학교 교수 Karen L. King이 쓴 What Is Gnosticism? (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 그리고 일반 독자를 위해 읽기 쉽게 쓴 Richard Smoley, Forbidden Faith: The Gnostic Legacy (San Francisco: HarperSanFranscico, 2006)을 참조할 수 있다.

10) Timothy Freke & Peter Gandy, The Jesus Mysteries (New York: Three Rivers Press, 1999), pp. 127-129 참조.

11) 김진, 앞의 책, p. 74-5에서 인용. 인간의 의식 발달을 물질, 마음, 영의 세 단계, 이른바 pre-subject/object consciousness, subject/object consciousness, trans-subject/object consciousness로 분류한 예는 Ken Wilber, Up From Eden (Boston: Shambala, 1983) 등을 참조할 수 있다.

12) 각각 김진, p. 129, 172, 95에서 인용.

13) Aldous Huxley, 앞의 책, pp. 1-21 참조.

14) 이 용어는 옥스퍼드 대학교 신학자인 John Macquarrie가 채택한 용어다. 범재신론을 다루는 책으로 최고로 좋은 그의 책 In Search of Deity: An Essay in Dialectical Theism (New York: Crossroad, 1985) 참조.

15) 함 선생님도 이와 비슷한 말을 하셨다. “그러면 ‘나[自我]가 곧 나라’요, ‘나[自我]를 본 자가 아버지[民族, 世界, 하늘]을 본 것이다.’ 그 나는 새삼스러이 있을 것도 아니요 없을 것도 아니요, 보라, 여기 있다 저기 있다 할 것도 아니요, ‘아브라함이 있기 전부터 있는 나’, 참 나, ‘천상천하유아독존(天上天下唯我獨尊)’인 나다.” 김진, 앞의 책 241에서 인용.

16) Huxley, 앞의 책 p. 11에서 재인용.

17) 중세 그리스도교 신비주의자들은 자기의 작은 자아가 없어지고 신이 그 자리를 차지한다는 뜻에서 인간의 ‘신성화(deification)’를 자주 이야기하고 있다.

18) ‘씨알’의 다중적 의미와 씨알 사상의 ‘바탕생각’에 대해서는 김경재, “21세기 씨알사상과 그 운동”(http://soombat.org) 참조. 함 선생님은 ‘씨알’이란 말이 류영모 선생님이 <大學> 첫머리에 나오는 “大學之道在明明德 在親[新]民 在止於至善”을 우리말로 옮기면서 “한 배움의 길은 속알 밝힘에 있으며, 씨알 어뵘에 있으며, 된데 머무름에 있나니라.”고 한 데서 나왔다고 했다. 김용준, <내가 본 함석헌> (아카넷, 206), pp. 193-194, 이정배, “함석헌의 ‘뜻으로 본 한국역사’ 속에 나타난 ‘민족’ 개념의 신학적 성찰” ) 씨알사상연구회 2006년 5월 월례발표회 논문, p. 11.

19) 김진, p. 115.

20) <함석헌 전집 3> “씨알의 설움”

21) 김진, p. 135.

22) Huxley, 앞의 책, p. 57에서 인용.

23) 김진, p. 84.

24) Huxley, 앞의 책 p. 5.

25) 김진, pp. 74-75.

26) 같은 책, p. 202.

27) 김성수, 179-180 재인용.

28) 필자가 함 선생님과 개인적으로 대화하면서 제일 먼저 느낀 것이 “글쎄요”라는 말을 아주 많이 하신다는 사실이었다. 이 사실을 <도덕경> 45장 “완전한 웅변은 눌변으로 보입니다(大辯若訥)”라는 구절을 해석하면서 언급한 적이 있다. 도에 입각한 말은 판에 박힌 이분법적 달변이 아니라 여러 관점을 동시에 보기 때문에 ‘글쎄요’가 나오지 않을 수 없다고 풀이한 것이다. 졸저 <도덕경>(현암사, 1995), p. 197.

29) 종교간의 관계에 대한 상이한 태도를 논의하는 책으로 Paul F. Knitter, Introducing Theologies of Religions (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 2002) 참조. 여기에서 Knitter는 네 가지 기본태도를 논하는 데 그것들은 다음과 같다. 1) 남의 종교를 내 종교로 대체해야 한다는 대체론(Replacement model), 2) 남의 종교의 모자람을 채워주어야 한다는 충족론(Fulfillment model), 3) 서로의 공통점을 찾자고 하는 상호론(Mutuality model), 4) 서로의 다름을 그대로 인정하고 그 다름에서 배우자고 하는 수용론(Acceptance mode).

30) 신비주의와 종교다원주의와의 관계, 특히 그리스도교와 불교가 신비주의에서 어떻게 만날 수 있는가 하는 문제는 졸저, <불교, 이웃종교로 읽다>(현암사, 2006), pp. 340-355 참조. 함 선생님의 다원주의적 태도를 좀 더 상세하게 다룬 것으로 김성수, 앞의 책, pp. 179-185를 참조할 수 있다.

31) <함석헌 전집 8> pp. 377-378. 김성수, 앞의 책, pp. 130-131에서 재인용.

32) 종교를 분류할 때 힌두교, 불교, 그리스도교, 유대교, 이슬람 등 각각의 전통에 따라 분류하는 것이 보통이지만, 이런 종교 전통 중에서 그 심천을 기준으로 하여 표의적 종교와 밀의적 종교로 나눈 슈온의 분류법은 시사하는 바가 크다고 본다. Schuon, 앞의 책 참조할 것.

33) The Silent Cry: Mysticism and Resistance (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2001), p. 11.

====

함석헌 사상의 비교사상사적 의의-오강남
작성자 바보새 
15-09-20
====

2019/03/15

Idries Shah - Wikipedia an author and teacher in the Sufi tradition

Idries Shah - Wikipedia

Idries Shah
ادریس شاه

Born Idries Shah
16 June 1924
Simla, British Punjab
Died 23 November 1996 (aged 72)
London, UK
Pen name Arkon Daraul[1]
Occupation Writer, publisher
Genre Eastern philosophy and culture
Subject Sufism, psychology
Notable works
The Sufis
The Commanding Self
The Subtleties of the Inimitable Mulla Nasrudin
The Exploits of the Incomparable Mulla Nasrudin
Thinkers of the East
Learning How to Learn
The Way of the Sufi
Reflections
Kara Kush
Notable awards Outstanding Book of the Year (BBC "The Critics"), twice;
six first prizes at the UNESCOWorld Book Year in 1973
Spouse Cynthia (Kashfi) Kabraji
Children Saira Shah, Tahir Shah, Safia Shah

Signature
Website
www.idriesshahfoundation.org

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Idries Shah (/ˈɪdrɪs ˈʃɑː/; Pashto: ادريس شاه‎, Urdu: ادریس شاه‎; 16 June 1924 – 23 November 1996), also known as Idris Shah, né Sayed Idries el-Hashimi (Arabic: سيد إدريس هاشمي) and by the pen name Arkon Daraul, was an author and teacher in the Sufi tradition who wrote over three dozen books on topics ranging from psychology and spirituality to travelogues and culture studies.

Born in India, the descendant of a family of Afghan nobles, Shah grew up mainly in England. His early writings centred on magicand witchcraft. In 1960 he established a publishing house, Octagon Press, producing translations of Sufi classics as well as titles of his own. His seminal work was The Sufis, which appeared in 1964 and was well received internationally. In 1965, Shah founded the Institute for Cultural Research, a London-based educational charity devoted to the study of human behaviour and culture. A similar organisation, the Institute for the Study of Human Knowledge (ISHK), exists in the United States, under the directorship of Stanford University psychology professor Robert Ornstein, whom Shah appointed as his deputy in the U.S.

In his writings, Shah presented Sufism as a universal form of wisdom that predated Islam. Emphasizing that Sufism was not static but always adapted itself to the current time, place and people, he framed his teaching in Western psychological terms. Shah made extensive use of traditional teaching stories and parables, texts that contained multiple layers of meaning designed to trigger insight and self-reflection in the reader. He is perhaps best known for his collections of humorous Mulla Nasrudinstories. 

Shah was at times criticized by orientalistswho questioned his credentials and background. His role in the controversy surrounding a new translation of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, published by his friend Robert Graves and his older brother Omar Ali-Shah, came in for particular scrutiny. However, he also had many notable defenders, chief among them the novelist Doris Lessing. Shah came to be recognized as a spokesman for Sufism in the West and lectured as a visiting professor at a number of Western universities. His works have played a significant part in presenting Sufism as a form of spiritual wisdom approachable by individuals and not necessarily attached to any specific religion.[2]

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Contents
1Life
1.1Family and early life
1.2Personal life
1.3Friendship with Gerald Gardner and Robert Graves, and publication of The Sufis
1.4John G. Bennett and the Gurdjieff connection
1.5Sufi studies and institutes
1.6Later years
1.7Illness
1.8Death
2Teachings
2.1Books on magic and the occult
2.2Sufism as a form of timeless wisdom
2.3Teaching stories
2.4Views on culture and practical life
2.5Legacy
3Reception
3.1"Shah-school" writings
3.2Assessment
3.2.1The Sufis controversy
3.2.2Omar Khayyam controversy
4Works
4.1Magic
4.2Sufism
4.2.1Collections of Mulla Nasrudin stories
4.3Studies of the English
4.4Travel
4.5Fiction
4.6Folklore
4.7For children
4.8As Arkon Daraul
4.9Audio interviews, seminars and lectures
5See also
6Notes
7Citations
8References
9External links


Life[edit]

Family and early life[edit]

Idries Shah was born in Simla, India, to an Afghan-Indian father, Sirdar Ikbal Ali Shah, a writer and diplomat, and a Scottish mother, Saira Elizabeth Luiza Shah. His family on the paternal side were Musavi Sayyids. Their ancestral home was near the Paghman Gardensof Kabul.[3] His paternal grandfather, Sayed Amjad Ali Shah, was the nawab of Sardhanain the North-Indian state of Uttar Pradesh,[4] a hereditary title the family had gained thanks to the services an earlier ancestor, Jan-Fishan Khan, had rendered to the British.[5][6]

Shah mainly grew up in the vicinity of London.[7] According to L. F. Rushbrook Williams, Shah began accompanying his father in his travels from a very young age, and although they both travelled widely and often, they always returned to England where the family made their home for many years. Through these travels, which were often part of Ikbal Ali Shah's Sufi work, Shah was able to meet and spend time with prominent statesmen and distinguished personalities in both East and West. Williams writes,


Such an upbringing presented to a young man of marked intelligence, such as Idries Shah soon proved himself to possess, many opportunities to acquire a truly international outlook, a broad vision, and an acquaintance with people and places that any professional diplomat of more advanced age and longer experience might well envy. But a career of diplomacy did not attract Idries Shah...[8]

Shah described his own unconventional upbringing in a 1971 BBC interview with Pat Williams. He described how his father and his extended family and friends always tried to expose the children to a "multiplicity of impacts" and a wide range of contacts and experiences with the intention of producing a well-rounded person. Shah described this as "the Sufi approach" to education.[9]

After his family moved from London to Oxford in 1940 to escape The Blitz (German bombing), he spent two or three years at the City of Oxford High School for Boys.[6] In 1945, he accompanied his father to Uruguay as secretary to his father's halal meat mission. He returned to England in October 1946, following allegations of improper business dealings.[6][7]

Personal life[edit]

Shah married the Parsi Cynthia (Kashfi) Kabraji in 1958; they had a daughter, Saira, in 1964, followed by twins – a son, Tahir, and another daughter, Safia – in 1966.[10]

Friendship with Gerald Gardner and Robert Graves, and publication of The Sufis[edit]

Towards the end of the 1950s, Shah established contact with Wiccan circles in London and then acted as a secretary and companion to Gerald Gardner, the founder of modern Wicca, for some time.[6][11] In those days, Shah used to hold court for anyone interested in Sufism at a table in the Cosmo restaurant in Swiss Cottage (North London) every Tuesday evening.[12]

In 1960, Shah founded his publishing house, Octagon Press; one of its first titles was Gardner's biography – Gerald Gardner, Witch. The book was attributed to one of Gardner's followers, Jack L. Bracelin, but had in fact been written by Shah.[11][13]

According to Wiccan Frederic Lamond, Bracelin's name was used because Shah "did not want to confuse his Sufi students by being seen to take an interest in another esoteric tradition."[12] Lamond said that Shah seemed to have become somewhat disillusioned with Gardner, and had told him one day, when he was visiting for tea:


When I was interviewing Gerald, I sometimes wished I was a News of the World reporter. What marvellous material for an exposé! And yet I have it on good authority that this group will be the cornerstone of the religion of the coming age. But rationally, rationally I can't see it![12]

In January 1961, while on a trip to Mallorca with Gardner, Shah met the English poet Robert Graves.[14] Shah wrote to Graves from his pension in Palma, requesting an opportunity of "saluting you one day before very long".[14] He added that he was currently researching ecstatic religions, and that he had been "attending... experiments conducted by the witches in Britain, into mushroom-eating and so on" – a topic that had been of interest to Graves for some time.[14][15]

Shah also told Graves that he was "intensely preoccupied at the moment with the carrying forward of ecstatic and intuitive knowledge."[15] Graves and Shah soon became close friends and confidants.[14] Graves took a supportive interest in Shah's writing career and encouraged him to publish an authoritative treatment of Sufism for a Western readership, along with the practical means for its study; this was to become The Sufis. Shah managed to obtain a substantial advance on the book, resolving temporary financial difficulties.[14]

In 1964, The Sufis appeared,[7] published by Doubleday, with a long introduction by Robert Graves.[16] The book chronicles the impact of Sufism on the development of Western civilisation and traditions from the seventh century onward through the work of such figures as Roger Bacon, John of the Cross, Raymond Lully, Chaucer and others, and has become a classic.[17] Like Shah's other books on the topic, The Sufis was conspicuous for avoiding terminology that might have identified his interpretation of Sufism with traditional Islam.[18]

The book also employed a deliberately "scattered" style; Shah wrote to Graves that its aim was to "de-condition people, and prevent their reconditioning"; had it been otherwise, he might have used a more conventional form of exposition. The book sold poorly at first, and Shah invested a considerable amount of his own money in advertising it.[19] Graves told him not to worry; even though he had some misgivings about the writing, and was hurt that Shah had not allowed him to proofread it before publication, he said he was "so proud in having assisted in its publication", and assured Shah that it was "a marvellous book, and will be recognised as such before long. Leave it to find its own readers who will hear your voice spreading, not those envisaged by Doubleday."[20]

John G. Bennett and the Gurdjieff connection[edit]

In June 1962, a couple of years prior to the publication of The Sufis, Shah had also established contact with members of the movement that had formed around the mysticalteachings of Gurdjieff and Ouspensky.[21][22] A press article had appeared,[nb 1] describing the author's visit to a secret monastery in Central Asia, where methods strikingly similar to Gurdjieff's methods were apparently being taught.[22] The otherwise unattested monastery had, it was implied, a representative in England.[6]

One of Ouspensky's earliest pupils, Reggie Hoare, who had been part of the Gurdjieff work since 1924, made contact with Shah through that article. Hoare "attached special significance to what Shah had told him about the Enneagram symbol and said that Shah had revealed secrets about it that went far beyond what we had heard from Ouspensky."[23] Through Hoare, Shah was introduced to other Gurdjieffians, including John G. Bennett, a noted Gurdjieff student and founder of an "Institute for the Comparative Study of History, Philosophy and the Sciences" located at Coombe Springs, a 7-acre (2.8-hectare) estate in Kingston upon Thames, Surrey.[23]

At that time, Bennett had already investigated the Sufi origins of many of Gurdjieff's teachings, based on both Gurdjieff's own numerous statements, and on travels Bennett himself made in the East where he met various Sufi Sheikhs.[24] He was convinced that Gurdjieff had adopted many of the ideas and techniques of the Sufis and that, for those who heard Gurdjieff's lectures in the early 1920s, "the Sufi origin of his teaching was unmistakable to anyone who had studied both."[25]

Bennett wrote about his first meeting with Shah in his autobiography Witness (1974):


At first, I was wary. I had just decided to go forward on my own and now another 'teacher' had appeared. One or two conversations with Reggie convinced me that I ought at least to see for myself. Elizabeth and I went to dinner with the Hoares to meet Shah, who turned out to be a young man in his early 40s. He spoke impeccable English and but for his beard and some of his gestures might well have been taken for an English public school type. Our first impressions were unfavourable. He was restless, smoked incessantly and seemed too intent on making a good impression. Halfway through the evening, our attitude completely changed. We recognized that he was not only an unusually gifted man, but that he had the indefinable something that marks the man who has worked seriously upon himself... Knowing Reggie to be a very cautious man, trained moreover in assessing information by many years in the Intelligence Service, I accepted his assurances and also his belief that Shah had a very important mission in the West that we ought to help him to accomplish.[23]

Shah gave Bennett a "Declaration of the People of the Tradition"[26] and authorised him to share this with other Gurdjieffians.[22] The document announced that there was now an opportunity for the transmission of "a secret, hidden, special, superior form of knowledge"; combined with the personal impression Bennett formed of Shah, it convinced Bennett that Shah was a genuine emissary of the "Sarmoung Monastery" in Afghanistan, an inner circle of Sufis whose teachings had inspired Gurdjieff.[22][27]


Whose Beard?
Nasruddin dreamt that he had Satan's beard in his hand. Tugging the hair he cried: "The pain you feel is nothing compared to that which you inflict on the mortals you lead astray." And he gave the beard such a tug that he woke up yelling in agony. Only then did he realise that the beard he held in his hand was his own.− Idries Shah[28]

For the next few years, Bennett and Shah had weekly private talks that lasted for hours. Later, Shah also gave talks to the students at Coombe Springs. Bennett says that Shah's plans included "reaching people who occupied positions of authority and power who were already half-consciously aware that the problems of mankind could no longer be solved by economic, political or social action. Such people were touched, he said, by the new forces moving in the world to help mankind to survive the coming crisis."[23]

Bennett agreed with these ideas and also agreed that "people attracted by overtly spiritual or esoteric movements seldom possessed the qualities needed to reach and occupy positions of authority" and that "there were sufficient grounds for believing that throughout the world there were already people occupying important positions, who were capable of looking beyond the limitations of nationality and cultures and who could see for themselves that the only hope for mankind lies in the intervention of a Higher Source."[23]

Bennett wrote, "I had seen enough of Shah to know that he was no charlatan or idle boaster and that he was intensely serious about the task he had been given."[23] Wishing to support Shah's work, Bennett decided in 1965, after agonising for a long time and discussing the matter with the council and members of his Institute, to give the Coombe Springs property to Shah, who had insisted that any such gift must be made with no strings attached.[6][22] Once the property was transferred to Shah, he banned Bennett's associates from visiting, and made Bennett himself feel unwelcome.[22]

Bennett says he did receive an invitation to the "Midsummer Revels", a party Shah held at Coombe Springs that lasted two days and two nights, primarily for the young people whom Shah was then attracting.[23] Anthony Blake, who worked with Bennett for 15 years, says, "When Idries Shah acquired Coombe Springs, his main activity was giving parties. I had only a few encounters with him but much enjoyed his irreverent attitude. Bennett once said to me, 'There are different styles in the work. Mine is like Gurdjieff's, around struggle with one's denial. But Shah's way is to treat the work as a joke.'"[29]

After a few months, Shah sold the plot – worth more than £100,000 – to a developer and used the proceeds to establish himself and his work activities at Langton House in Langton Green, near Tunbridge Wells, a 50-acre estate that once belonged to the family of Lord Baden-Powell, founder of the Boy Scouts.[6][30]

Along with the Coombe Springs property, Bennett also handed the care of his body of pupils to Shah, comprising some 300 people.[22] Shah promised he would integrate all those who were suitable; about half of their number found a place in Shah's work.[22]Some 20 years later, the Gurdjieffian author James Moore suggested that Bennett had been duped by Shah.[6] Bennett gave an account of the matter himself in his autobiography (1974); he said that Shah's behaviour after the transfer of the property was "hard to bear", but also insisted that Shah was a "man of exquisite manners and delicate sensibilities" and considered that Shah might have adopted his behaviour deliberately, "to make sure that all bonds with Coombe Springs were severed".[22] He added that Langton Green was a far more suitable place for Shah's work than Coombe Springs could have been and said he felt no sadness that Coombe Springs lost its identity; he concluded his account of the matter by stating that he had "gained freedom" through his contact with Shah, and had learned "to love people whom [he] could not understand".[31]

According to Bennett, Shah later also engaged in discussions with the heads of the Gurdjieff groups in New York. In a letter to Paul Anderson from 5 March 1968, Bennett wrote, "Madame de Salzmann and all the others... are aware of their own limitations and do no more than they are able to do. While I was in New York, Elizabeth and I visited the Foundation, and we saw most of the leading people in the New York group as well as Jeanne de Salzmann herself. Something is preparing, but whether it will come to fruition I cannot tell. I refer to their connection with Idries Shah and his capacity for turning everything upside down. It is useless with such people to be passive, and it is useless to avoid the issue. For the time being, we can only hope that some good will come, and meanwhile continue our own work..."[32]

The author and clinical psychologist Kathleen Speeth later wrote,


Witnessing the growing conservatism within the [Gurdjieff] Foundation, John Bennett hoped new blood and leadership would come from elsewhere... Although there may have been flirtation with Shah, nothing came of it. The prevailing sense [among the leaders of the Gurdjieff work] that nothing must change, that a treasure in their safekeeping must at all costs be preserved in its original form, was stronger than any wish for a new wave of inspiration."[32]

Sufi studies and institutes[edit]

In 1965, Shah founded the Society for Understanding Fundamental Ideas (SUFI), later renamed The Institute for Cultural Research (ICR) – an educational charity aimed at stimulating "study, debate, education and research into all aspects of human thought, behaviour and culture".[16][33][34][35] He also established the Society for Sufi Studies (SSS).[36]

Langton House at Langton Green became a place of gathering and discussion for poets, philosophers and statesmen from around the world, and an established part of the literary scene of the time.[37] The ICR held meetings and gave lectures there, awarding fellowships to international scholars including Sir John Glubb, Aquila Berlas Kiani, Richard Gregory and Robert Cecil, the head of European studies at the University of Reading who became Chairman of the Institute in the early 1970s.[37][38]

Shah was an early member and supporter of the Club of Rome,[nb 2] and several presentations were given to the Institute by scientists like Alexander King.[39][40][41]

Other visitors, pupils, and would-be pupils included the poet Ted Hughes, novelists J. D. Salinger, Alan Sillitoe and Doris Lessing, zoologist Desmond Morris, and psychologist Robert Ornstein. The interior of the house was decorated in a Middle-Eastern fashion, and buffet lunches were held every Sunday for guests in a large dining room that was once the estate stable, nicknamed "The Elephant" (a reference to the Eastern tale of the "Elephant in the Dark").[30]

Over the following years, Shah developed Octagon Press as a means of publishing and distributing reprints of translations of numerous Sufi classics.[42] In addition, he collected, translated and wrote thousands of Sufi tales, making these available to a Western audience through his books and lectures.[36] Several of Shah's books feature the Mullah Nasruddin character, sometimes with illustrations provided by Richard Williams. In Shah's interpretation, the Mulla Nasruddin stories, previously considered a folkloric part of Muslim cultures, were presented as Sufi parables.[43]

Nasruddin was featured in Shah's television documentary Dreamwalkers, which aired on the BBC in 1970. Segments included Richard Williams being interviewed about his unfinished animated film about Nasruddin, and scientist John Kermisch discussing the use of Nasruddin stories at the Rand Corporation Think Tank. Other guests included the British psychiatrist William Sargant discussing the hampering effects of brainwashing and social conditioning on creativity and problem-solving, and the comedian Marty Feldman talking with Shah about the role of humour and ritual in human life. The program ended with Shah asserting that humanity could further its own evolution by "breaking psychological limitations" but that there was a "constant accretion of pessimism which effectively prevents evolution in this form from going ahead... Man is asleep – must he die before he wakes up?"[44]

Shah also organised Sufi study groups in the United States. Claudio Naranjo, a Chileanpsychiatrist who was teaching in California in the late 1960s, says that, after being "disappointed in the extent to which Gurdjieff's school entailed a living lineage", he had turned towards Sufism and had "become part of a group under the guidance of Idries Shah."[45] Naranjo co-wrote a book with Robert Ornstein, entitled On The Psychology of Meditation (1971). Both of them were associated with the University of California, where Ornstein was a research psychologist at the Langley Porter Psychiatric Institute.[46]

Ornstein was also president and founder of the Institute for the Study of Human Knowledge, established in 1969; seeing a need in the U.S. for books and collections on ancient and new ways of thinking, he formed the ISHK Book Service in 1972 as a central source for important contemporary and traditional literature, becoming the sole U.S. distributor of the works of Idries Shah published by Octagon Press.[47]

Another Shah associate, the scientist and professor Leonard Lewin, who was teaching telecommunications at the University of Colorado at the time, set up Sufi study groups and other enterprises for the promotion of Sufi ideas like the Institute for Research on the Dissemination of Human Knowledge (IRDHK), and also edited an anthology of writings by and about Shah entitled The Diffusion of Sufi Ideas in the West (1972).[48][49]

The planned animated feature film by Williams, provisionally titled The Amazing Nasruddin, never materialised, as the relationship between Williams and the Shah family soured in 1972 amid disputes about copyrights and funds; however, Williams later used some of the ideas for his film The Thief and the Cobbler.[50]

Later years[edit]

Shah wrote around two dozen more books over the following decades, many of them drawing on classical Sufi sources.[6] Achieving a huge worldwide circulation,[33] his writings appealed primarily to an intellectually oriented Western audience.[18] By translating Sufi teachings into contemporary psychological language, he presented them in vernacular and hence accessible terms.[51] His folktales, illustrating Sufi wisdom through anecdote and example, proved particularly popular.[18][33] Shah received and accepted invitations to lecture as a visiting professor at academic institutions including the University of California, the University of Geneva, the National University of La Plata and various English universities.[52] Besides his literary and educational work, he found time to design an air ioniser (forming a company together with Coppy Laws) and run a number of textile, ceramics and electronics companies.[30] He also undertook several journeys to his ancestral Afghanistan and involved himself in setting up relief efforts there; he drew on these experiences later on in his book Kara Kush, a novel about the Soviet–Afghan War.[16]
Illness[edit]

In late spring of 1987, about a year after his final visit to Afghanistan, Shah suffered two successive and massive heart attacks.[35][53] He was told that he had only eight per cent of his heart function left, and could not expect to survive.[35] Despite intermittent bouts of illness, he continued working and produced further books over the next nine years.[35][53]

Death[edit]

The grave of Idries Shah in Brookwood Cemetery

Idries Shah died in London on 23 November 1996, at the age of 72 and was buried in Brookwood Cemetery. According to his obituary in The Daily Telegraph, Idries Shah was a collaborator with Mujahideen in the Soviet–Afghan War, a Director of Studies for the Institute for Cultural Research and a Governor of the Royal Humane Society and the Royal Hospital and Home for Incurables.[35] He was also a member of the Athenaeum Club.[6] At the time of his death, Shah's books had sold over 15 million copies in a dozen languages worldwide,[7] and had been reviewed in numerous international journals and newspapers.[54][55]

Teachings[edit]
Books on magic and the occult[edit]

Shah's early books were studies of what he called "minority beliefs". His first book Oriental Magic, published in 1956, was originally intended to be titled Considerations in Eastern and African Minority Beliefs. He followed this in 1957 with The Secret Lore of Magic: Book of the Sorcerers, originally entitled Some Materials on European Minority-Belief Literature. The names of these books were, according to a contributor to a 1973 festschrift for Shah, changed before publication due to the "exigencies of commercial publishing practices."[56]

Before his death in 1969, Shah's father asserted that the reason why he and his son had published books on the subject of magic and the occult was "to forestall a probable popular revival or belief among a significant number of people in this nonsense. My son... eventually completed this task, when he researched for several years and published two important books on the subject."[57]

In an interview in Psychology Today from 1975, Shah elaborated:


The main purpose of my books on magic was to make this material available to the general reader. For too long people believed that there were secret books, hidden places, and amazing things. They held onto this information as something to frighten themselves with. So the first purpose was information. This is the magic of East and West. That's all. There is no more. The second purpose of those books was to show that there do seem to be forces, some of which are either rationalized by this magic or may be developed from it, which do not come within customary physics or within the experience of ordinary people. I think this should be studied, that we should gather the data and analyze the phenomena. We need to separate the chemistry of magic from the alchemy, as it were.[58]

Shah went on to say that his books on the subject were not written for the current devotees of magic and witchcraft, and that in fact he subsequently had to avoid them, as they would only be disappointed in what he had to say.[58]

These books were followed by the publication of the travelogue Destination Mecca (1957), which was featured on television by Sir David Attenborough.[59] Both Destination Meccaand Oriental Magic contain sections on the subject of Sufism.[60][61]

Sufism as a form of timeless wisdom[edit]

Shah presented Sufism as a form of timeless wisdom that predated Islam.[62] He emphasised that the nature of Sufism was alive, not static, and that it always adapted its visible manifestations to new times, places and people: "Sufi schools are like waves which break upon rocks: [they are] from the same sea, in different forms, for the same purpose," he wrote, quoting Ahmad al-Badawi.[36][62]

Shah was often dismissive of orientalists' descriptions of Sufism, holding that academic or personal study of its historical forms and methods was not a sufficient basis for gaining a correct understanding of it.[62] In fact, an obsession with its traditional forms might actually become an obstacle: "Show a man too many camels' bones, or show them to him too often, and he will not be able to recognise a camel when he comes across a live one," is how he expressed this idea in one of his books.[62][63]

Shah, like Inayat Khan, presented Sufism as a path that transcended individual religions, and adapted it to a Western audience.[42] Unlike Khan, however, he deemphasised religious or spiritual trappings and portrayed Sufism as a psychological technology, a method or science that could be used to achieve self-realisation.[42][64] In doing so, his approach seemed to be especially addressed to followers of Gurdjieff, students of the Human Potential Movement, and intellectuals acquainted with modern psychology.[42] For example, he wrote, "Sufism ... states that man may become objective, and that objectivity enables the individual to grasp 'higher' facts. Man is therefore invited to push his evolution ahead towards what is sometimes called in Sufism 'real intellect'."[42] Shah taught that the human being could acquire new subtle sense organs in response to need:[36]


Sufis believe that, expressed in one way, humanity is evolving towards a certain destiny. We are all taking part in that evolution. Organs come into being as a result of the need for specific organs (Rumi). The human being's organism is producing a new complex of organs in response to such a need. In this age of transcending of time and space, the complex of organs is concerned with the transcending of time and space. What ordinary people regard as sporadic and occasional outbursts of telepathic or prophetic power are seen by the Sufi as nothing less than the first stirrings of these same organs. The difference between all evolution up to date and the present need for evolution is that for the past ten thousand years or so we have been given the possibility of a conscious evolution. So essential is this more rarefied evolution that our future depends upon it.
— Idries Shah, The Sufis[65]

Shah dismissed other Eastern and Western projections of Sufism as "watered down, generalised or partial"; he included in this not only Khan's version, but also the overtly Muslim forms of Sufism found in most Islamic countries. On the other hand, the writings of Shah's associates implied that he was the "Grand Sheikh of the Sufis" – a position of authority undercut by the failure of any other Sufis to acknowledge its existence.[42] Shah felt the best way to introduce Sufi wisdom in the West, while at the same time overcoming the problems of gurus and cults, was to clarify the difference between a cult and an educational system, and to contribute to knowledge. In an interview, he explained, "You must work within an educational pattern – not in the mumbo-jumbo area."[66] As part of this approach, he acted as Director of Studies at the ICR.[66] He also lectured on the study of Sufism in the West at the University of Sussex in 1966. This was later published as a monograph entitled Special Problems in the Study of Sufi Ideas.[67]

Shah later explained that Sufi activities were divided into different components or departments: "studies in Sufism", "studies of Sufism", and "studies for Sufism".[68]

Studies for Sufism helped lead people towards Sufism and included the promotion of knowledge which might be lacking in the culture and needed to be restored and spread, such as an understanding of social conditioning and brainwashing, the difference between the rational and intuitive modes of thought, and other activities so that people's minds could become more free and wide-ranging. Studies of Sufism included institutions and activities, such as lectures and seminars, which provided information about Sufism and acted as a cultural liaison between the Sufis and the public. Finally, Studies in Sufism referred to being in a Sufi school, carrying out those activities prescribed by the teacher as part of a training, and this could take many forms which did not necessarily fit into the preconceived notion of a "mystical school".[68]

Shah's Sufi aims and methodologies were also delineated in the "Declaration of the People of the Tradition" given at Coombe Springs:


In addition to making this announcement, to feeding into certain fields of thought certain ideas, and pointing out some of the factors surrounding this work, the projectors of this declaration have a practical task. This task is to locate individuals who have the capacity for obtaining the special knowledge of man which is available; to group them in a special, not haphazard, manner, so that each such group forms a harmonious organism; to do this in the right place at the right time; to provide an external and interior format with which to work, as well as a formulation of 'ideas' suitable to local conditions; to balance theory with practice.[23]

In a BBC interview from 1971, Shah explained his contemporary, adaptive approach: "I am interested in making available in the West those aspects of Sufism which shall be of use to the West at this time. I don't want to turn good Europeans into poor Asiatics. People have asked me why I don't use traditional methods of spiritual training, for instance, in dealing with people who seek me out or hunt me down; and of course, the answer is, that it's for the same reason that you came to my house today in a motorcar and not on the back of a camel. Sufism is, in fact, not a mystical system, not a religion, but a body of knowledge."[69]

Shah frequently characterised some of his work as really only preliminary to actual Sufi study, in the same way that learning to read and write might be seen as preliminary to a study of literature: "Unless the psychology is correctly oriented, there is no spirituality, though there can be obsession and emotionality, often mistaken for it."[70][71] "Anyone trying to graft spiritual practices upon an unregenerate personality ... will end up with an aberration", he argued.[70] For this reason, most of the work he produced from The Sufisonwards was psychological in nature, focused on attacking the nafs-i-ammara, the false self: "I have nothing to give you except the way to understand how to seek – but you think you can already do that."[70]

Shah was frequently criticised for not mentioning God very much in his writings; his reply was that given man's present state, there would not be much point in talking about God. He illustrated the problem in a parable in his book Thinkers of the East: "Finding I could speak the language of ants, I approached one and inquired, 'What is God like? Does he resemble the ant?' He answered, 'God! No indeed – we have only a single sting but God, He has two!'"[70][72]

Teaching stories[edit]
Further information: Teaching stories

Shah used teaching stories and humour to great effect in his work.[62][73] Shah emphasised the therapeutic function of surprising anecdotes, and the fresh perspectives these tales revealed.[74] The reading and discussion of such tales in a group setting became a significant part of the activities in which the members of Shah's study circles engaged.[43] The transformative way in which these puzzling or surprising tales could destabilise the student's normal (and unaware) mode of consciousness was studied by Stanford University psychology professor Robert Ornstein, who along with fellow psychologist Charles Tart[75] and eminent writers such as Poet Laureate Ted Hughes[76]and Nobel-Prize-winning novelist Doris Lessing[36][77] was one of several notable thinkers profoundly influenced by Shah.[74][78]

Shah and Ornstein met in the 1960s.[78] Realising that Ornstein could be an ideal partner in propagating his teachings, translating them into the idiom of psychotherapy, Shah made him his deputy (khalifa) in the United States.[74][78] Ornstein's The Psychology of Consciousness (1972) was enthusiastically received by the academic psychology community, as it coincided with new interests in the field, such as the study of biofeedbackand other techniques designed to achieve shifts in mood and awareness. Ornstein has published more books in the field over the years.[78]

Philosopher of science and physicist Henri Bortoft used teaching tales from Shah's corpus as analogies of the habits of mind which prevented people from grasping the scientific method of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Bortoft's The Wholeness of Nature: Goethe's Way of Science includes tales from Tales of the Dervishes, The Exploits of the Incomparable Mullah Nasruddin and A Perfumed Scorpion.[79]

In their original historical and cultural setting, Sufi teaching stories of the kind popularised by Shah – first told orally, and later written down for the purpose of transmitting Sufi faith and practice to successive generations – were considered suitable for people of all ages, including children, as they contained multiple layers of meaning.[36] Shah likened the Sufi story to a peach: "A person may be emotionally stirred by the exterior as if the peach were lent to you. You can eat the peach and taste a further delight ... You can throw away the stone – or crack it and find a delicious kernel within. This is the hidden depth."[36] It was in this manner that Shah invited his audience to receive the Sufi story.[36] By failing to uncover the kernel, and regarding the story as merely amusing or superficial, a person would accomplish nothing more than looking at the peach, while others internalised the tale and allowed themselves to be touched by it.[36]

Tahir Shah mentions his father's storytelling at several points throughout his 2008 book In Arabian Nights, first to discuss how Idries Shah made use of teaching stories: "My father never told us how the stories worked. He did not reveal the layers, the nuggets of information, the fragments of truth and fantasy. He didn't need to – because, given the right conditions, the stories activated, sowing themselves."[80] He then explains how his father used these stories to impart wisdom: "My father always had a tale at hand to divert our attention, or to use as a way of transmitting an idea or a thought. He used to say that the great collections of stories from the East were like encyclopedias, storehouses of wisdom and knowledge ready to be studied, to be appreciated and cherished. To him, stories represented much more than mere entertainment. He saw them as complex psychological documents, forming a body of knowledge that had been collected and refined since the dawn of humanity and, more often than not, passed down by word of mouth."[80]

Later on in the book, he continues his discussion of stories as teaching tools, quoting the following explanation his father gave him at the end of a story:


These stories are technical documents, they are like maps, or kind of blueprints. What I do is show people how to use the maps, because they have forgotten. You may think it's a strange way to teach – with stories – but long ago this was the way people passed on wisdom. Everyone knew how to take the wisdom from the story. They could see through the layers, in the same way you see a fish frozen in a block of ice. But the world where we are living has lost this skill, a skill they certainly once had. They hear the stories and they like them, because the stories amuse them, make them feel warm. But they can't see past the first layer, into the ice. The stories are like a lovely chessboard: we all know how to play chess and we can be drawn into a game so complicated that our faculties are drained. But imagine if the game was lost from a society for centuries and then the fine chessboard and its pieces were found. Everyone would cluster round to see them and praise them. They might never imagine that such a fine object ever had a purpose other than to entertain the eyes. The stories' inner value has been lost in the same way. At one time everyone knew how to play with them, how to decipher them. But now the rules have been forgotten. It is for us to show people again how the game is played.
— Tahir Shah, In Arabian Nights, [80]

Olav Hammer, in Sufism in Europe and North America (2004), cites an example of such a story.[7] It tells of a man who is looking for his key on the ground.[7] When a passing neighbour asks the man whether this is in fact the place where he lost the key, the man replies, "No, I lost it at home, but there is more light here than in my own house.".[7]Versions of this story have been known for many years in the West (see Streetlight effect). This is an example of the long-noted phenomenon of similar tales existing in many different cultures, which was a central idea in Shah's folktale collection World Tales.

Peter Wilson, writing in New Trends and Developments in the World of Islam (1998), quotes another such story, featuring a dervish who is asked to describe the qualities of his teacher, Alim.[81] The dervish explains that Alim wrote beautiful poetry, and inspired him with his self-sacrifice and his service to his fellow man.[81] His questioner readily approves of these qualities, only to find the dervish rebuking him: "Those are the qualities which would have recommended Alim to you."[81][82] Then he proceeds to list the qualities which actually enabled Alim to be an effective teacher: "Hazrat Alim Azimi made me irritated, which caused me to examine my irritation, to trace its source. Alim Azimi made me angry, so that I could feel and transform my anger."[82] He explains that Alim Azimi followed the path of blame, intentionally provoking vicious attacks upon himself, in order to bring the failings of both his students and critics to light, allowing them to be seen for what they really were: "He showed us the strange, so that the strange became commonplace and we could realise what it really is."[81][82]

Views on culture and practical life[edit]

Shah's concern was to reveal essentials underlying all cultures, and the hidden factors determining individual behaviour.[33] He discounted the Western focus on appearances and superficialities, which often reflected mere fashion and habit, and drew attention to the origins of culture and the unconscious and mixed motivations of people and the groups formed by them. He pointed out how both on the individual and group levels, short-term disasters often turn into blessings – and vice versa – and yet the knowledge of this has done little to affect the way people respond to events as they occur.[33]

Shah did not advocate the abandonment of worldly duties; instead, he argued that the treasure sought by the would-be disciple should derive from one's struggles in everyday living. He considered practical work the means through which a seeker could do self-work, in line with the traditional adoption by Sufis of ordinary professions, through which they earned their livelihoods and "worked" on themselves.[36]

Shah's status as a teacher remained indefinable; disclaiming both the guru identity and any desire to found a cult or sect, he also rejected the academic hat.[33] Michael Rubinstein, writing in Makers of Modern Culture, concluded that "he is perhaps best seen as an embodiment of the tradition in which the contemplative and intuitive aspects of the mind are regarded as being most productive when working together."[33]

Legacy[edit]

Idries Shah considered his books his legacy; in themselves, they would fulfil the function he had fulfilled when he could no longer be there.[83] Promoting and distributing their teacher's publications has been an important activity or "work" for Shah's students, both for fund-raising purposes and for transforming public awareness.[43] The ICR suspended its activities in 2013 following the formation of a new charity, The Idries Shah Foundation,[84] while the SSS had ceased its activities earlier. The ISHK (Institute for the Study of Human Knowledge), headed by Ornstein,[85] is active in the United States; after the 9/11 terrorist attacks, for example, it sent out a brochure advertising Afghanistan-related books authored by Shah and his circle to members of the Middle East Studies Association, thus linking these publications to the need for improved cross-cultural understanding.[43]

When Elizabeth Hall interviewed Shah for Psychology Today in July 1975, she asked him: "For the sake of humanity, what would you like to see happen?" Shah replied: "What I would really want, in case anybody is listening, is for the products of the last 50 years of psychological research to be studied by the public, by everybody, so that the findings become part of their way of thinking (...) they have this great body of psychological information and refuse to use it."[58]

Shah's brother, Omar Ali-Shah (1922–2005), was also a writer and teacher of Sufism; the brothers taught students together for a while in the 1960s, but in 1977 "agreed to disagree" and went their separate ways.[86] Following Idries Shah's death in 1996, a fair number of his students became affiliated with Omar Ali-Shah's movement.[87]

One of Shah's daughters, Saira Shah, became notable in 2001 for reporting on women's rights in Afghanistan in her documentary Beneath the Veil.[10] His son, Tahir Shah, is a noted travel writer, journalist and adventurer.
Reception[edit]

Shah's books on Sufism achieved considerable critical acclaim. He was the subject of a BBC documentary ("One Pair of Eyes") in 1969,[88] and two of his works (The Way of the Sufi and Reflections) were chosen as "Outstanding Book of the Year" by the BBC's "The Critics" programme.[89] Among other honours, Shah won six first prizes at the UNESCOWorld Book Year in 1973,[88] and the Islamic scholar James Kritzeck, commenting on Shah's Tales of the Dervishes, said that it was "beautifully translated".[89]

A collection of positive assessments of Shah's work entitled Sufi Studies: East and Westwas published in 1973 which included, among others, contributions from L. F. Rushbrook Williams, Rom Landau, Mohammad Hidayatullah, Gyula Germanus, Sir John Glubb, Sir Razik Fareed, Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi, Ahmet Emin Yalman, Mahmoud Youssef Shawarbi and Nasrollah S. Fatemi.[90]

Colin Wilson stated that "partly through Idries Shah, I have begun to see some rather new and interesting implications [about the subject of mysticism]"[91] and in his review of The Magic Monastery (1972) noted that Shah "is not primarily concerned with propagating some secret doctrine. He is concerned with the method by which mystical knowledge is transmitted... [The Sufis] transmit knowledge through direct intuition rather in the manner of the Zen masters, and one of the chief means of doing this is by means of brief stories and parables which work their way into the subconscious and activate its hidden forces."[92]

In Afghanistan, the Kabul Times said that Caravan of Dreams (1968) was "highly recommended" and "of especial interest to Afghans" because it is "basically an anthology of short stories, tales and proverbs, jokes and extracts, from the written and oral literature which forms a part of many an evening's talk and interchange – even in these modern times – in Afghanistan."[93] The Afghanistan News reported that The Sufis "covers important Afghan contributions to world philosophy and science" and was "the first fully-authoritative book on Sufism and the human development system of the dervishes." [94] As far as doubts about Shah's background and credentials are concerned, the Sardar Haji Faiz Muhammad Khan Zikeria, an Afghan scholar who had served as Afghan Minister of Education and later Ambassador and Foreign Minister of Afghanistan, issued a notarized Declaration for the scholars of the world about the Shah family in 1970: "The Musavi Saiyids of Afghanistan and Khans of Paghman are recognized as the descendants of the Prophet – may peace be upon him. They are recognized to be of the most noble descent of Islam and are respected as Sufi teachers and erudite scholars. Saiyid Idries Shah, son of the late Saiyid Ikbal Ali Shah, is personally known to me as an honourable man whose rank, titles and descent are attested and known by repute."[95]

In 1980, Professor Khalilullah Khalili, former Poet Laureate of Afghanistan, praised the work of his "compatriot and friend the Arif (Sufi Illuminate) The Sayed Idries Shah", saying "Especially to be appreciated are his brilliant and important services in revealing the celestial inspirations and inner thoughts of the great teachers of Islam and Sufis."[96]

The Hindustan Standard of India found that Caravan of Dreams, was a "fine anthology, dippable-into at any time for entertainment, refreshment, consolation, and inspiration... witty, engrossing, utterly and appealingly human."[97]

The Institute for Cross-cultural Exchange (ICE), a Canadian charity founded in 2004, decided to use Idries Shah's children's books to distribute to thousands of needy children in Canada, Mexico and Afghanistan, as part of their children's literacy programme and promotion of cross-cultural understanding. This series of books is published by Hoopoe Books, a non-profit initiative by the American psychologist Robert Ornstein's Institute for the Study of Human Knowledge (ISHK).[98][99] ISHK provides these books to needy children through their own Share Literacy initiative.[100]
"Shah-school" writings[edit]

A hostile critic was James Moore, a Gurdjieffian who disagreed with Shah's assertion that Gurdjieff's teaching was essentially sufic in nature and took exception to the publication of a chronologically impossible, pseudonymous book on the matter (The Teachers of Gurdjieff by Rafael Lefort) that was linked to Shah.[6] In a 1986 article in Religion Today(now the Journal of Contemporary Religion), Moore covered the Bennett and Graves controversies and noted that Shah was surrounded by a "nimbus of exorbitant adulation: an adulation he himself has fanned".[6] He described Shah as supported by a "coterie of serviceable journalists, editors, critics, animators, broadcasters, and travel writers, which gamely choruses Shah's praise".[6] Moore questioned Shah's purported Sufi heritage and upbringing and deplored the body of pseudonymous "Shah-school" writings from such authors as "Omar Michael Burke Ph. D." and "Hadrat B. M. Dervish", who from 1960 heaped intemperate praise – ostensibly from disinterested parties – on Shah, referring to him as the "Tariqa Grand Sheikh Idries Shah Saheb", "Prince Idries Shah", "King Enoch", "The Presence", "The Studious King", the "Incarnation of Ali", and even the Qutb or "Axis" – all in support of Shah's incipient efforts to market Sufism to a Western audience.[6]

Peter Wilson similarly commented on the "very poor quality" of much that had been written in Shah's support, noting an "unfortunately fulsome style", claims that Shah possessed various paranormal abilities, "a tone of superiority; an attitude, sometimes smug, condescending, or pitying, towards those 'on the outside', and the apparent absence of any motivation to substantiate claims which might be thought to merit such treatment".[101]In his view, there was a "marked difference in quality between Shah's own writings" and the quality of this secondary literature.[101] Both Moore and Wilson, however, also noted similarities in style, and considered the possibility that much of this pseudonymous work, frequently published by Octagon Press, Shah's own publishing house, might have been written by Shah himself.[101]

Arguing for an alternative interpretation of this literature, the religious scholar Andrew Rawlinson proposed that rather than a "transparently self-serving [...] deception", it may have been a "masquerade – something that by definition has to be seen through".[102]Stating that "a critique of entrenched positions cannot itself be fixed and doctrinal", and noting that Shah's intent had always been to undermine false certainties, he argued that the "Shah myth" created by these writings may have been a teaching tool, rather than a tool of concealment; something "made to be deconstructed – that is supposed to dissolve when you touch it".[102] Rawlinson concluded that Shah "cannot be taken at face value. His own axioms preclude the very possibility."[102]

Assessment[edit]

Nobel-prize winner Doris Lessing was profoundly influenced by Shah.

Doris Lessing, one of Shah's greatest defenders,[6] stated in a 1981 interview: "I found Sufism as taught by Idries Shah, which claims to be the reintroduction of an ancient teaching, suitable for this time and this place. It is not some regurgitated stuff from the East or watered-down Islam or anything like that."[36] In 1996, commenting on Shah's death in The Daily Telegraph, she stated that she met Shah because of The Sufis, which was to her the most surprising book she had read, and a book that changed her life.[103] Describing Shah's œuvre as a "phenomenon like nothing else in our time", she characterised him as a many-sided man, the wittiest person she ever expected to meet, kind, generous, modest ("Don't look so much at my face, but take what is in my hand", she quotes him as saying), and her good friend and teacher for 30-odd years.[103]

Arthur J. Deikman, a professor of psychiatry and long-time researcher in the area of meditation and change of consciousness who began his study of Sufi teaching stories in the early seventies, expressed the view that Western psychotherapists could benefit from the perspective provided by Sufism and its universal essence, provided suitable materials were studied in the correct manner and sequence.[64] Given that Shah's writings and translations of Sufi teaching stories were designed with that purpose in mind, he recommended them to those interested in assessing the matter for themselves, and noted that many authorities had accepted Shah's position as a spokesman for contemporary Sufism.[64] The psychologist and consciousness researcher Charles Tart commented that Shah's writings had "produced a more profound appreciation in [him] of what psychology is about than anything else ever written".[104]

Asked to give an assessment of Shah in 1973, J.G. Bennett said that Shah was doing important work on a large scale, "stirring people up very effectively all over the place, making them think, showing them that modes of thought that appear to be free are really largely conditioned." He referred to Shah as the Krishnamurti of Sufism, breaking down people's fixed ideas in many directions as part of an awakening process that is "a very necessary preparation for the new world."[105]

The Indian philosopher and mystic Rajneesh, later known as Osho, commenting on Shah's work, described The Sufis as "just a diamond. The value of what he has done in The Sufisis immeasurable". He added that Shah was "the man who introduced Mulla Nasrudin to the West, and he has done an incredible service. He cannot be repaid. [...] Idries Shah has made just the small anecdotes of Nasrudin even more beautiful ... [he] not only has the capacity to exactly translate the parables, but even to beautify them, to make them more poignant, sharper."[106]

Richard Smoley and Jay Kinney, writing in Hidden Wisdom: A Guide to the Western Inner Traditions (2006), pronounced Shah's The Sufis an "extremely readable and wide-ranging introduction to Sufism", adding that "Shah's own slant is evident throughout, and some historical assertions are debatable (none are footnoted), but no other book is as successful as this one in provoking interest in Sufism for the general reader."[107] They described Learning How to Learn, a collection of interviews, talks and short writings, as one of Shah's best works, providing a solid orientation to his "psychological" approach to Sufi work, noting that at his best, "Shah provides insights that inoculate students against much of the nonsense in the spiritual marketplace."[107]

Ivan Tyrrell and social psychologist Joe Griffin, in their book about innate emotional needs, Human Givens: A new approach to emotional health and clear thinking, wrote that Shah "more than anyone else, understood and appreciated the real significance of the givens of human nature".[108] In another book, Godhead: The Brain's Big Bang – The explosive origin of creativity, mysticism and mental illness, they said that Shah's stories, "when told to young and old alike [...] lay down blueprints in the mind, not only for living and overcoming everyday difficulties but also for travelling the spiritual path. Their impact may not be recognized or felt for months or years after first hearing or reading them, but eventually the structural content they contain will exploit the pattern-matching nature of the brain and make it possible for students to observe the functioning of their own emotionally conditioned responses to changing life circumstances. It then makes it easier for them to take any action required by reality, and for their minds to connect to higher realms. Teaching stories should be read, told and reflected on, but not intellectually analysed, because that destroys the beneficial impact that they would otherwise have had on your mind." Shah, they added, was "a great collector and publisher of tales and writings that contain this 'long-term impact' quality. He understood the vital importance for humanity of the 'mental blueprint' aspect of them and his books are full of nourishing examples."[109]

Olav Hammer notes that during Shah's last years, when the generosity of admirers had made him truly wealthy, and he had become a respected figure among the higher echelons of British society, controversies arose due to discrepancies between autobiographical data – mentioning kinship with the prophet Muhammad, affiliations with a secret Sufi order in Central Asia, or the tradition in which Gurdjieff was taught – and recoverable historical facts.[7] While there may have been a link of kinship with the prophet Muhammad, the number of people sharing such a link today, 1300 years later, would be at least one million. Other elements of Shah's autobiography appeared to have been pure fiction. Even so, Hammer noted that Shah's books have remained in public demand, and that he has played "a significant role in representing the essence of Sufism as a non-confessional, individualistic and life-affirming distillation of spiritual wisdom."[7]

Peter Wilson wrote that if Shah had been a swindler, he had been an "extremely gifted one", because unlike merely commercial writers, he had taken the time to produce an elaborate and internally consistent system that attracted a "whole range of more or less eminent people", and had "provoked and stimulated thought in many diverse quarters".[104] Moore acknowledged that Shah had made a contribution of sorts in popularising a humanistic Sufism, and had "brought energy and resource to his self-aggrandisement", but ended with the damning conclusion that Shah's was "a 'Sufism' without self-sacrifice, without self-transcendence, without the aspiration of gnosis, without tradition, without the Prophet, without the Qur'an, without Islam, and without God. Merely that."[6][62]

Gore Vidal opined that Shah's "books are a great deal harder to read than they were to write."[110]
The Sufis controversy[edit]

The reception of Shah's movement was also marked by controversy.[36] Some orientalists were hostile, in part because Shah presented classical Sufi writings as tools for self-development to be used by contemporary people, rather than as objects of historical study.[16]

Graves' introduction to The Sufis, written with Shah's help, described Shah as being "in the senior male line of descent from the prophet Mohammed" and as having inherited "secret mysteries from the Caliphs, his ancestors. He is, in fact, a Grand Sheikh of the Sufi Tariqa... "[111] Privately, however, writing to a friend, Graves confessed that this was "misleading: he is one of us, not a Moslem personage."[14] The introduction is not included in Octagon Press editions of the book after 1983 but has always been included in the Anchor/Doubleday editions.[112][113]

And Shah's fiercest critic, University of Edinburgh scholar L.P. Elwell-Sutton, in a 1975 article critical of what he called "pseudo-Sufis" like Gurdjieff and Shah, opined that Graves had been trying to "upgrade" Shah's "rather undistinguished lineage", and that the reference to Mohammed's senior male line of descent was a "rather unfortunate gaffe", as Mohammed's sons had all died in infancy. Although Elwell-Sutton accepted that the family were Sayyids descended from the seventh Imam Musa al-Kadhim, the great-greatgrandson of Hussein ibn Ali, who was the younger son of the marriage of Fatimah(the daughter of the Prophet) and Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib, he considered this an "undistinguished lineage" with no special sanctity because "Sayyids proliferate throughout the Islamic world, in all walks of society and on both sides of every religious and political fence."[21][114] He described Shah's books as "trivial", replete with errors of fact, slovenly and inaccurate translations and even misspellings of Oriental names and words – "a muddle of platitudes, irrelevancies and plain mumbo-jumbo", adding for good measure that Shah had "a remarkable opinion of his own importance".[115] He took a dim view of Rushbrook Williams' festschrift (collection written in honour of) Shah, saying he considered many of the claims made in the book on behalf of Shah and his father, concerning their representing the Sufi tradition, to be self-serving publicity marked by a "disarming disregard for facts".[116][117]Expressing amusement and amazement at the "sycophantic manner" of Shah's interlocutors in a BBC radio interview, Elwell-Sutton concluded that some Western intellectuals were "so desperate to find answers to the questions that baffle them, that, confronted with wisdom from 'the mysterious East,' they abandon their critical faculties and submit to brainwashing of the crudest kind".[89] To Elwell-Sutton, Shah's Sufism belonged to the realm of "Pseudo-Sufism", "centred not on God but on man."[36][118]
Omar Khayyam controversy[edit]

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Shah came under attack over a controversy surrounding the 1967 publication of a new translation of Omar Khayyam's Rubaiyat, by Robert Graves and Shah's older brother, Omar Ali-Shah.[16][89] The translation, which presented the Rubaiyat as a Sufi poem, was based on an annotated "crib", supposedly derived from a manuscript that had been in the Shah family's possession for 800 years.[119] L. P. Elwell-Sutton, an orientalist at Edinburgh University, and others who reviewed the book expressed their conviction that the story of the ancient manuscript was false.[89][119]

Shah's father, the Sirdar Ikbal Ali Shah, was expected by Graves to present the original manuscript to clear the matter up, but he died in a car accident in Tangier in November 1969.[120] A year later, Graves asked Idries Shah to produce the manuscript. Shah replied in a letter that the manuscript was not in his possession, but even if it were, producing it would prove nothing, because it could not be accurately dated using the current methods and its authenticity would still be contested.[120] It was time, Shah wrote, "that we realised that the hyenas who are making so much noise are intent only on opposition, destructiveness and carrying on a campaign when, let's face it, nobody is really listening."[120] He added that his father had been so infuriated by those casting these aspersions that he refused to engage with them, and he felt his father's response had been correct.[120] Graves, noting that he was now widely perceived as having fallen prey to the Shah brothers' gross deception, and that this affected income from sales of his other historical writings, insisted that producing the manuscript had become "a matter of family honour".[120] He pressed Shah again, reminding him of previous promises to produce the manuscript if it were necessary.[120]

Neither of the brothers ever produced the manuscript, leading Graves' nephew and biographer to muse that it was hard to believe – bearing in mind the Shah brothers' many obligations to Graves – that they would have withheld the manuscript if it had ever existed in the first place.[120] According to his widow writing many years later, Graves had "complete faith" in the authenticity of the manuscript because of his friendship with Shah, even though he never had a chance to view the text in person.[121] The scholarly consensus today is that the "Jan-Fishan Khan" manuscript was a hoax, and that the Graves/Ali-Shah translation was in fact based on a Victorian amateur scholar's analysis of the sources used by previous Rubaiyat translator Edward FitzGerald.[6][89][122][123]

Works[edit]

Magic[edit]

Oriental Magic ISBN 9781784790424 (1956-2015)
The Secret Lore of Magic ISBN 9781784790660 (1957-2016)
Sufism[edit]
The Sufis ISBN 9781784790004 (1964-2014)
Tales of the Dervishes ISBN 9781784790691 (1967-2016)
Caravan of Dreams ISBN 9781784790127 (1968-2015)
Reflections ISBN 9781784790189 (1968-2015)
The Way of the Sufi ISBN 9781784790240 (1968-2015)
The Book of the Book ISBN 9781784790783 (1969-2016)
Wisdom of the Idiots ISBN 9781784790363 (1969-2015)
The Dermis Probe ISBN 9781784790486 (1970-2016)
Thinkers of the East: Studies in Experientialism ISBN 9781784790608 (1971-2016)
The Magic Monastery ISBN 0-86304-058-6 (1972-2017)
The Elephant in the Dark – Christianity, Islam and the Sufis ISBN 9781784791025(1974-2016)
A Veiled Gazelle – Seeing How to See ISBN 0-900860-58-8 (1977)
Neglected Aspects of Sufi Study ISBN 0-900860-56-1 (1977)
Special Illumination: The Sufi Use of Humour ISBN 0-900860-57-X (1977)
A Perfumed Scorpion ISBN 0-900860-62-6 (1978)
Learning How to Learn ISBN 0-900860-59-6 (1978)
The Hundred Tales of Wisdom ISBN 0-86304-049-7 (1978)
Evenings with Idries Shah ISBN 0-86304-008-X (1981)
Letters and Lectures of Idries Shah ISBN 0-86304-010-1 (1981)
Observations ISBN 0-86304-013-6 (1982)
Seeker After Truth ISBN 0-900860-91-X (1982)
Sufi Thought and Action ISBN 0-86304-051-9 (1990)
The Commanding Self ISBN 0-86304-066-7 (1994)
Knowing How to Know ISBN 0-86304-072-1 (1998)
Collections of Mulla Nasrudin stories[edit]
The Exploits of the Incomparable Mulla Nasrudin ISBN 0-86304-022-5 (1966)
The Pleasantries of the Incredible Mulla Nasrudin ISBN 0-86304-023-3 (1968)
The Subtleties of the Inimitable Mulla Nasrudin ISBN 0-86304-021-7 (1973)
The World of Nasrudin ISBN 0-86304-086-1 (2003)
Studies of the English[edit]
Darkest England ISBN 0-86304-039-X (1987)
The Natives are Restless ISBN 0-86304-044-6 (1988)
The Englishman's Handbook ISBN 0-86304-077-2 (2000)

Travel[edit]

Destination Mecca ISBN 0-900860-03-0 (1957)
Fiction[edit]
Kara Kush, London: William Collins Sons and Co., Ltd.. ISBN 0-685-55787-1 (1986)
Folklore[edit]
World Tales ISBN 0-86304-036-5 (1979)
For children[edit]
Neem the Half-Boy ISBN 1-883536-10-3 (1998)
The Farmer's Wife ISBN 1-883536-07-3 (1998)
The Lion Who Saw Himself in the Water ISBN 1-883536-25-1 (1998)
The Boy Without A Name ISBN 1-883536-20-0 (2000)
The Clever Boy and the Terrible Dangerous Animal ISBN 1-883536-51-0 (2000)
The Magic Horse ISBN 1-883536-26-X (2001)
The Man with Bad Manners ISBN 1-883536-30-8 (2003)
The Old Woman and The Eagle ISBN 1-883536-27-8 (2005)
The Silly Chicken ISBN 1-883536-50-2 (2005)
Fatima the Spinner and the Tent ISBN 1-883536-42-1 (2006)
The Man and the Fox ISBN 1-883536-43-X (2006)
As Arkon Daraul[edit]
A History of Secret Societies ISBN 0-8065-0857-4 (1961)[1]
Witches and Sorcerers ISBN 0-8065-0267-3 (1962)[1]
Audio interviews, seminars and lectures[edit]
Shah, Idries, and Pat Williams. A Framework for New Knowledge. London: Seminar Cassettes, 1973. Sound recording.
Shah, Idries. Questions and Answers. London: Seminar Cassettes, 1973. Sound recording.
King, Alexander, Idries Shah, and Aurelio Peccei. The World-and Men. Seminar Cassettes, 1972. Sound recording.
King, Alexander, et al. Technology: The Two-Edged Sword. London: Seminar Cassettes, 1972. Sound recording.
Learning From Stories (1976 Lecture) ISBN 1-883536-03-0 (1997)
On the Nature of Sufi Knowledge (1976 Lecture) ISBN 1-883536-04-9 (1997)
An Advanced Psychology of the East (1977 Lecture) ISBN 1-883536-02-2 (1997)
Overcoming Assumptions that Inhibit Spiritual Development; previously entitled A Psychology of the East (1976 Lecture) ISBN 1-883536-23-5 (2000)
See also[edit]

Children's literature portal
The Institute for Cultural Research (1965–2013)
The Idries Shah Foundation (2013 onwards)
Notes[edit]

^ Augy Hayter, a student of both Idries and Omar Ali-Shah, asserts that the article, published in Blackwood's Magazine, was written by Idries Shah under a pseudonym. When Reggie Hoare, a Gurdjieffian and associate of Bennett's, wrote to the author care of the magazine, intrigued by the description of exercises known only to a very small number of Gurdjieff students, it was Shah who replied to Hoare, and Hoare who introduced Shah to Bennett. Shah himself according to Hayter later described the Blackwood's Magazine article as "trawling". (Hayter, Augy (2002). Fictions and Factions. Reno, NV/Paris, France: Tractus Books. p. 187. ISBN 2-909347-14-1.)
^ Some sources have described Shah as a "founding member" of the Club of Rome. Augy Hayter states, "To a certain extent, one can say that a good deal of the literature put out by Shah and friends under various pseudonyms was designed to act as a decoy. It occupied would-be students and opponents alike, and inflamed critics to quite amazing degree. A lot of it was fake: Shah knew perfectly well that he was not a founding member of the Club of Rome; he was a member for a short time and was politely asked to leave because he didn't turn up to meetings; but this mythology around Shah's public personage was necessary in order to provide the dream-lie without which no truth can exist, because a student must always have a choice."(Hayter, Augy (2002). Fictions and Factions. Reno, NV/Paris, France: Tractus Books. p. 262. ISBN 2-909347-14-1.)
Citations[edit]

  1. ^ Jump up to:a b c Estate of Idries Shah, The (1 September 2012). "Idries Shah". Facebook. Retrieved 2012-09-01.
  2. ^ Shah, Idries (1977) [1964]. The Sufis. London, UK: Octagon Press. p. 54. ISBN 0-86304-020-9.: "Though commonly mistaken as a Moslem sect, the Sufis are at home in all religions"
  3. ^ Shah, Saira (2003). The Storyteller's Daughter. New York, NY: Anchor Books. pp. 19–26. ISBN 1-4000-3147-8.
  4. ^ Dervish, Bashir M. (4 October 1976). "Idris Shah: a contemporary promoter of Islamic Ideas in the West". Islamic Culture – an English Quarterly. Islamic Culture Board, Hyderabad, India (Osmania University, Hyderabad). L (4).
  5. ^ Lethbridge, Sir Roper (1893). The Golden Book of India. A Genealogical and Biographical Dictionary of the Ruling Princes, Chiefs, Nobles, and Other Personages, Titled or Decorated, of the Indian Empire. London, UK/New York, NY: Macmillan and Co., p. 13; reprint by Elibron Classics (2001): ISBN 978-1-4021-9328-6
  6. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Moore, James (1986). "Neo-Sufism: The Case of Idries Shah". Religion Today. 3 (3). Archived from the original on 24 July 2013.
  7. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i Westerlund, David (ed.) (2004). Sufism in Europe and North America. New York, NY: RoutledgeCurzon. pp. 136–138. ISBN 0-415-32591-9.
  8. ^ Williams, L.F. Rushbrook (1974). Sufi Studies: East and West. New York, NY: E.P. Dutton & Co. pp. 13–24.
  9. ^ 1970 BBC interview with Idries Shah on YouTube
  10. ^ Jump up to:a b Groskop, Viv (2001-06-16). "Living dangerously". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 2008-10-29.
  11. ^ Jump up to:a b Lamond, Frederic (2004). Fifty Years of Wicca. Green Magic. pp. 9, 37. ISBN 0-9547230-1-5.
  12. ^ Jump up to:a b c Lamond, Frederic (2005). Fifty Years of Wicca. Green Magic. p. 19. ISBN 0-9547230-1-5.
  13. ^ Pearson, Joanne (2002). A Popular Dictionary of Paganism. London, UK/New York, NY: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. p. 28. ISBN 0-7007-1591-6.
  14. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f O'Prey, Paul (1984). Between Moon and Moon – Selected Letters of Robert Graves 1946–1972. Hutchinson. pp. 213–215. ISBN 0-09-155750-X.
  15. ^ Jump up to:a b Graves, Richard P. (1998). Robert Graves and The White Goddess 1940–1985. London, UK: Phoenix Giant. p. 326. ISBN 0-7538-0116-7.
  16. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Cecil, Robert (1996-11-26). "Obituary: Idries Shah". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 12 October 2018. Retrieved 2008-11-05.
  17. ^ "Editorial Reviews for Idries Shah's The Sufis". amazon.com. Retrieved 28 October 2008.
  18. ^ Jump up to:a b c Smith, Jane I. (1999). Islam in America (Columbia Contemporary American Religion Series). New York, NY/Chichester, UK: Columbia University Press. p. 69. ISBN 0-231-10966-0.
  19. ^ O'Prey, Paul (1984). Between Moon and Moon – Selected Letters of Robert Graves 1946–1972. Hutchinson. pp. 236, 239, 240. ISBN 0-09-155750-X.
  20. ^ O'Prey, Paul (1984). Between Moon and Moon – Selected Letters of Robert Graves 1946–1972. Hutchinson. pp. 234, 240–241, 269. ISBN 0-09-155750-X.
  21. ^ Jump up to:a b Elwell-Sutton, L. P. (May 1975). "Sufism & Pseudo-Sufism". Encounter. XLIV (5): 14.
  22. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i Bennett, John G. (1975). Witness: The autobiography of John G. Bennett. Turnstone Books. pp. 355–63. ISBN 0-85500-043-0.
  23. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h Bennett, John G. (1974). Witness: The autobiography of John G. Bennett. Tucson: Omen Press. pp. 355–63. ISBN 0-912358-48-3.
  24. ^ Bennett, John G. (1973). Gurdjieff: Making a New World. Santa Fe, NM: Turnstone Books. p. 21. ISBN 0-9621901-6-0.
  25. ^ Bennett, John G. (1973). Gurdjieff: Making a New World. Santa Fe, NM: Turnstone Books. p. 104. ISBN 0-9621901-6-0.
  26. ^ Shah, Idries (13 April 2007). "Declaration of the People of the Tradition and Twenty-Two Principles" (PDF). Sher Point Publications, UK. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 Oct 2018. Retrieved 11 November 2017.
  27. ^ Hinnells, John R. (1992). Who's Who of World Religions. Simon & Schuster. p. 50. ISBN 0-13-952946-2.
  28. ^ Shah, Idries (2003). The World of Nasruddin. London: Octagon Press. p. 438. ISBN 0-86304-086-1.
  29. ^ "Meetings". Anthonyblake.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-03-27.
  30. ^ Jump up to:a b c Hall, Elizabeth (July 1975). "At Home in East and West: A Sketch of Idries Shah". Psychology Today. 9 (2): 56.
  31. ^ Bennett, John G. (1975). Witness: The autobiography of John G. Bennett. Turnstone Books. pp. 362–63. ISBN 0-85500-043-0. Chapter 27, Service and Sacrifice: "The period from 1960 (...) to 1967 when I was once again entirely on my own was of the greatest value to me. I had learned to serve and to sacrifice and I knew that I was free from attachments. It happened about the end of the time that I went on business to America and met with Madame de Salzmann in New York. She was very curious about Idries Shah and asked what I had gained from my contact with him. I replied: "Freedom!"... Not only had I gained freedom, but I had come to love people whom I could not understand."
  32. ^ Jump up to:a b Speeth, Kathleen (1989). The Gurdjieff Work. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam. p. 105. ISBN 0-87477-492-6.
  33. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g Wintle, Justin (ed.) (2001). Makers of Modern Culture, Vol. 1. London, UK/New York, NY: Routledge. p. 474. ISBN 0-415-26583-5.
  34. ^ Staff. "About the Institute". Institute for Cultural Research. Retrieved 2008-10-29.
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References

  • Archer, Nathaniel P. (1977). Idries Shah, Printed Word International Collection 8. London, UK: Octagon Press. ISBN 0-86304-000-4.
  • Bennett, John G. (1975). Witness: The autobiography of John G. Bennett. Turnstone Books. ISBN 0-85500-043-0.
  • Boorstein, Seymour (ed.) (1996). Transpersonal Psychotherapy. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-2835-4.
  • Galin, Müge (1997). Between East and West: Sufism in the Novels of Doris Lessing. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-3383-8.
  • Ghali, Halima (1979). Shah, International Press Review Collection 9. London, UK: BM Sufi Studies.
  • Graves, Richard Perceval (1995). Robert Graves and The White Goddess: 1940–1985. London, UK: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-81534-2.
  • Lewin, Leonard; Shah, Idries (1972). The Diffusion of Sufi Ideas in the West. Boulder, CO: Keysign Press.
  • Malik, Jamal; Hinnells, John R. (eds.) (2006). Sufism in the West. London, UK/New York, NY: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 0-415-27407-9.
  • Moore, James (1986). "Neo-Sufism: The Case of Idries Shah". Religion Today. 3 (3).
  • O'Prey, Paul (1984). Between Moon and Moon – Selected Letters of Robert Graves 1946–1972. Hutchinson. ISBN 0-09-155750-X.
  • Rawlinson, Andrew (1997). The Book of Enlightened Masters: Western Teachers in Eastern Traditions. Chicago and La Salle, IL: Open Court. ISBN 0-8126-9310-8.
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  • Smoley, Richard; Kinney, Jay (2006). Hidden Wisdom: A Guide to the Western Inner Traditions. Wheaton, IL/Chennai, India: Quest Books. ISBN 0-8356-0844-1.
  • Taji-Farouki, Suha; Nafi, Basheer M. (eds.) (2004). Islamic Thought in the Twentieth Century. London, UK/New York, NY: I.B.Tauris Publishers. ISBN 1-85043-751-3.
  • Westerlund, David (ed.) (2004). Sufism in Europe and North America. New York, NY: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0-415-32591-9.
  • Wilson, Peter (1998). "The Strange Fate of Sufism in the New Age". In Peter B. Clarke. New Trends and Developments in the World of Islam. London: Luzac Oriental. ISBN 1-898942-17-X.
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External links[edit]