2022/12/19

정우진님의 신작 [양생>

정우진님의 신작 <양생>

작성자 : 마일즈 
 작성일 : 2021년 11월 24일


정우진님의 신작 <양생>을 재밌어서 몇번째 보고 있다. 고대중국 도가의 모습들은 불사를 추구하는 등 매우 신비주의적이고, 굉장히 다양하고 역설적이기도해서 그 면모를 쉽게 파악하기가 어려웠다.

어렸을 때 봤던 김용의 무협소설에 나오는 구처기 같은 도사들도 생각나고, 실제 청말 도사의 모습을 그려냈던 책도 기억났다.








불노장생, 도사들의 신비 등은 도가의 여러 모습 중 도교라는 측면을 보여주는 거 같다. 중국 도교의 변천사를 다루는 책은 도교에 관련된 여러 종교집단을 소개하고 나열하는 정도로, 기독교나 불교 등에 비하면 어떤 연속성 같은 것을 시원하게 드러낸 책은 못본거 같다.








그리고 전통적인 도가서적인 <노자> <장자> <관자> <회남자> 등에서 볼 수 있는 내용들도 있고, 그리고 유가쪽 <논어> <맹자> <순자> 책들도, 도가나 유가에 공통인 기론에 기반한, 어떤 부분이 있는 거 같다. 프랑수아 줄리앵이 <무미예찬>에서 '담'에 대한 설명과 기술을 하면서, 도가나 유가에 공통인 태도라고 적절하게 지적해놓은 것처럼 말이다.

한의학 초기 성립도 같은 결이다. 한의학이라는 경험적이고 체험적인 의학지식에, 어떻게 기론 같은 것이 결합했는지도 도가와 관련이 있다.

이러한 모습들은 도가와 관련은 있지만, 단순히 도가에서 기원한다라고 곧바로 가르키기는 어려운데, 춘추시대, 전국시대, 진한, 위진남북조 등 시대마다 부각되던 시대정신의 영향이 깊이 깔려있어, 단순히 한 사조에 한정된다고 말하기 어렵기 때문이다.

하지만, 이러한 어려움을 이기고 굉장히 설득적인 논증을 만들어 놓은 책이 <양생>이다.





저자는 서문에서 위진시대 도교 성립 직전까지가 이 책의 범위라고 한정지으며 고대 중국의

특별한 정신세계를 보여준다.

저자는 무속 혹은 무교 전통이 고대 중국 사상의 원천이라고 주장한다. 이러한 주장은 아주 특별한 것은 아닌데, 단순히 샤머니즘 혹은 무당의 행위와 가까워 보인다고 얘기하는 것으로는 부족하다. 중요한 것은 어떤 면이 무교 전통이고, 어떻게 수용되었고, 어떤 발전양상을 보였고 등을 잘 풀어 설득해야 하는 점이다.

몇몇 인상적인 지점들은 이렇다.

저자는 <장자>의 유명한 포정해우 고사에서 특히 양생수행론의 아이디어를 얻었다고 했다. 생명의 양육, 즉 양생이라는 관점에서 고대 중국의 수행론을 정리하려는 생각을 갖게 되었다고 한다.

중국 수양론의 중요한 연원은 무속이다. 그렇지만 후대로 갈수록 무속의 색채는 약해진다.

춘추시대에 비하면 전국시기에 이르러 공동체적 생명에서 갑자기 개체적 생명에 관심을 기울인다. 저자는 <노자>가 이러한 관점에서 그 내용이 개체적 생명에 기울기 때문에 전국시대 작품이라고 논증한다. 거꾸로 <논어>의 내용은 공동체적 생명에 주목한다.

그리고 무속, 유가, 도가에 공통된 서로 차이지는 지점인 마음에 대한 내용을 살살 풀어서, 여러 책 넓은 범위 속에서 찾아내 음미하고 비교하고 그 내용의 깊은 의미를 드러낸다.

<논어><맹자><순자>부터 주자성리학까지, 유가의 내용들은 한편으로 의례들만 모아놓은 룰북 같은 느낌을 주지만, 매우 설득력강한 마음에 대한 이해를 바탕으로 펼쳐진 내용이라는 점을 알게 되었다. <장자><노자><관자><회남자> 속에 담긴 내용들도 너무 허황되거나 신비주의적으로 접할 필요없이 적절한 충분한 이해를 할 수 있게 되었다.
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2022/12/18

양생(養生)

[아침보약] 양생(養生)

양생(養生)


2021.10.29  경기신문 

한의원 근처엔 공사현장이 많다. 아파트 재건축과 함께 낡고 오래된 집들을 부수고 새로운 건물을 짓는 것이 끊이지 않는다.

 

가끔 지나다니던 거리에서 한번 요란하게 집을 부수는걸 한번 보고 그다음에 지날 때면 건물이 아이들이 블록으로 만드는 건물마냥 착착 올라가 있곤 한다. 그 변화를 보는 재미에 산책을 할 때면 공사하는 현장들을 살핀다.

 

어느 아침 산책길에 본 한 공사 현장도 한창 집을 부수고 있을 때 한 번 보았는데 다시 보니 깨끗한 땅에 어느새 시멘트 바닥이 생겼다. 맨 흙이 드러나 있는 땅에 시멘트 바닥만 깔려있는 그 공터를 둘러싸고 접근금지를 위한 울타리가 있었는데 그 옆에 있는 ‘양생중’ 이라는 푯말이 눈에 띄었다. 공사판에 양생이란 말을 썼네, 무슨 뜻일까, 궁금해져서 한의원에 와서 검색을 해보았다. 


어느 포털사이트의 지식백과에서 가장 처음에 나오는 뜻이 ‘콘크리트 치기가 끝난 다음 온도, 하중, 충격, 오손, 파손 등의 유해한 영향을 받지 않도록 충분히 보호 관리하는 것을 일컫는다’고 한다.


큰 맥락은 사람에게 쓰이는 단어와 유사하다.

 

(표준국어대사전)에서 양생은 

1. 병에 걸리지 아니하도록 건강 관리를 잘하여 오래 살기를 꾀함 

2. 섭생 섭양 양수, 병의 조리를 잘하여 회복을 꾀함의 뜻이다.

 

한의철학자인 정우진은 그의 책 『양생』에서 한의학이 발생한 시기의 유교, 불교, 도교의 언어들을 비교 고찰하며 


양생이 자신과 타인의 생명을 돌보고 길러주는 방식과 관련된 문화이자 이론으로 

수양과 수행을 포괄한다고 정의한다. 


그는 장자의 『양생주』 편을 인용한다. 이 편에는 포정이 소를 잡는 이야기가 있다. 포정이 도축하는 모습을 문혜군은 처음에는 단순히 기술이 뛰어나다고만 칭찬을 했다. 그러나 문혜군은 포정이 기술보다는 도를 좋아하고 신으로 소와 만난다는 말을 들은 후 자신의 칭찬이 잘못되었음과 또 다른 무엇인가를 깨닫는다. “참으로 뛰어나도다. 나는 포정의 말을 듣고 양생에 관해 알게 되었다” 한다. 간호 보살핌을 의미하던 양생은 삶의 태도와 관련된 단어로 확장된다.

 

양생은 한의학에서 “불치이병치미병(不治已病治未病;

이미 발생한 병을 다스리기보다는 병이나기 전에 예방하라는 뜻) ”을 위한 모든 방식이다, 


병이 걸리고 심해진 다음에 병을 치료하는 것보다 고통, 병의 기미가 있을 때 그것을 알아채고 미리미리 더 나빠져서 큰 병이 되는 것을 막거나 아니면 아예 일상에서 잘 관리해서 병이 생기는 것을 애초에 예방하는 것을 더욱 높은 기술로 평가하며 중시한다.

 

생명을 기르고 보존하는 삶의 태도는 무엇일까? 

시간 속에 끊임없이 변화하는 인체의 낡고 스러져가는 것들을 뒤로하고 새로운 생명의 힘을 기르는 양생은 현재 팬데믹으로 일상이 무너진 지 2년이 지나가는 이 시점에서 더욱 필요하다. 이러한 양생으로 기르는 생명력은 우리 몸의 면역을 조절하는 힘이기도 하다. 앞으로 양생의 지혜들을 하나씩 살펴보려 한다.



[출처] 경기신문 (https://www.kgnews.co.kr)
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Hanging Gardens of Babylon - Wikipedia

Hanging Gardens of Babylon - Wikipedia

Hanging Gardens of Babylon

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For other uses, see Hanging Garden (disambiguation).
This hand-coloured engraving, probably made in the 19th century after the first excavations in the Assyrian capitals, depicts the fabled Hanging Gardens, with the Tower of Babel in the background.
Timeline and map of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, including the Hanging Gardens of Babylon

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World listed by Hellenic culture. They were described as a remarkable feat of engineering with an ascending series of tiered gardens containing a wide variety of trees, shrubs, and vines, resembling a large green mountain constructed of mud bricks. It was said to have been built in the ancient city of Babylon, near present-day Hillah, Babil province, in Iraq. The Hanging Gardens' name is derived from the Greek word κρεμαστός (kremastós, lit. 'overhanging'), which has a broader meaning than the modern English word "hanging" and refers to trees being planted on a raised structure such as a terrace.[1][2][3]

According to one legend, the Hanging Gardens were built alongside a grand palace known as The Marvel of Mankind, by the Neo-Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II (who ruled between 605 and 562 BC), for his Median wife, Queen Amytis, because she missed the green hills and valleys of her homeland. This was attested to by the Babylonian priest Berossus, writing in about 290 BC, a description that was later quoted by Josephus. The construction of the Hanging Gardens has also been attributed to the legendary queen Semiramis[4] and they have been called the Hanging Gardens of Semiramis as an alternative name.[5]

The Hanging Gardens are the only one of the Seven Wonders for which the location has not been definitively established.[6] There are no extant Babylonian texts that mention the gardens, and no definitive archaeological evidence has been found in Babylon.[7][8] Three theories have been suggested to account for this: firstly, that they were purely mythical, and the descriptions found in ancient Greek and Roman writings (including those of Strabo, Diodorus Siculus and Quintus Curtius Rufus) represented a romantic ideal of an eastern garden;[9] secondly, that they existed in Babylon, but were destroyed sometime around the first century AD;[10][4] and thirdly, that the legend refers to a well-documented garden that the Assyrian King Sennacherib (704–681 BC) built in his capital city of Nineveh on the River Tigris, near the modern city of Mosul.[11][1]

Descriptions in classical literature[edit]

There are five principal writers whose descriptions of Babylon exist in some form today. These writers concern themselves with the size of the Hanging Gardens, their overall design and means of irrigation, and why they were built.

Josephus (c. 37–100 AD) quotes a description of the gardens by Berossus, a Babylonian priest of Marduk,[6] whose writing c. 290 BC is the earliest known mention of the gardens.[5] Berossus described the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II and is the only source to credit that king with the construction of the Hanging Gardens.[12][13]

In this palace he erected very high walls, supported by stone pillars; and by planting what was called a pensile paradise, and replenishing it with all sorts of trees, he rendered the prospect an exact resemblance of a mountainous country. This he did to gratify his queen, because she had been brought up in Media, and was fond of a mountainous situation.[14]

Hanging gardens of Semiramis, by H. Waldeck

Diodorus Siculus (active c. 60–30 BC) seems to have consulted the 4th century BC texts of both Cleitarchus (a historian of Alexander the Great) and Ctesias of Cnidus. Diodorus ascribes the construction to a Syrian king. He states that the garden was in the shape of a square, with each side approximately four plethra long. The garden was tiered, with the uppermost gallery being 50 cubits high. The walls, 22 feet thick, were made of brick. The bases of the tiered sections were sufficiently deep to provide root growth for the largest trees, and the gardens were irrigated from the nearby Euphrates.[15]

Quintus Curtius Rufus (fl. 1st century AD) probably drew on the same sources as Diodorus.[16] He states that the gardens were located on top of a citadel, which was 20 stadia in circumference. He attributes the building of the gardens to a Syrian king, again for the reason that his queen missed her homeland.

The account of Strabo (c. 64 BC – 21 AD) possibly based his description on the lost account of Onesicritus from the 4th century BC.[17] He states that the gardens were watered by means of an Archimedes' screw leading to the gardens from the Euphrates river.

The last of the classical sources thought to be independent of the others is A Handbook to the Seven Wonders of the World by the paradoxographer Philo of Byzantium, writing in the 4th to 5th century AD.[18] The method of raising water by screw matches that described by Strabo.[19] Philo praises the engineering and ingenuity of building vast areas of deep soil, which had a tremendous mass, so far above the natural grade of the surrounding land, as well as the irrigation techniques.

Historical existence[edit]

This copy of a bas relief from the North Palace of Ashurbanipal (669–631 BC) at Nineveh shows a luxurious garden watered by an aqueduct.

It is unclear whether the Hanging Gardens were an actual construction or a poetic creation, owing to the lack of documentation in contemporaneous Babylonian sources. There is also no mention of Nebuchadnezzar's wife Amyitis (or any other wives), although a political marriage to a Median or Persian would not have been unusual.[20] Many records exist of Nebuchadnezzar's works, yet his long and complete inscriptions do not mention any garden.[21] However, the gardens were said to still exist at the time that later writers described them, and some of these accounts are regarded as deriving from people who had visited Babylon.[2] Herodotus, who describes Babylon in his Histories, does not mention the Hanging Gardens,[22] although it could be that the gardens were not yet well known to the Greeks at the time of his visit.[2]

To date, no archaeological evidence has been found at Babylon for the Hanging Gardens.[6] It is possible that evidence exists beneath the Euphrates, which cannot be excavated safely at present. The river flowed east of its current position during the time of Nebuchadnezzar II, and little is known about the western portion of Babylon.[23] Rollinger has suggested that Berossus attributed the Gardens to Nebuchadnezzar for political reasons, and that he had adopted the legend from elsewhere.[24]

Identification with Sennacherib's gardens at Nineveh[edit]

See also: Nineveh § Sennacherib's Nineveh

Oxford scholar Stephanie Dalley has proposed that the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were actually the well-documented gardens constructed by the Assyrian king Sennacherib (reigned 704 – 681 BC) for his palace at Nineveh; Dalley posits that during the intervening centuries the two sites became confused, and the extensive gardens at Sennacherib's palace were attributed to Nebuchadnezzar II's Babylon.[1] Archaeological excavations have found traces of a vast system of aqueducts attributed to Sennacherib by an inscription on its remains, which Dalley proposes were part of an 80-kilometre (50 mi) series of canals, dams, and aqueducts used to carry water to Nineveh with water-raising screws used to raise it to the upper levels of the gardens.[25]

Dalley bases her arguments on recent developments in the analysis of contemporary Akkadian inscriptions. Her main points are:[26]

  • The name Babylon, meaning "Gate of the Gods",[27] was the name given to several Mesopotamian cities.[28] Sennacherib renamed the city gates of Nineveh after gods,[29] which suggests that he wished his city to be considered "a Babylon".
  • Only Josephus names Nebuchadnezzar as the king who built the gardens; although Nebuchadnezzar left many inscriptions, none mentions any garden or engineering works.[30] Diodorus Siculus and Quintus Curtius Rufus specify a "Syrian" king. By contrast, Sennacherib left written descriptions,[31] and there is archaeological evidence of his water engineering.[32] His grandson Assurbanipal pictured the mature garden on a sculptured wall panel in his palace.[33]
  • Sennacherib called his new palace and garden "a wonder for all peoples". He describes the making and operation of screws to raise water in his garden.[34]
  • The descriptions of the classical authors fit closely to these contemporary records. Before the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC Alexander the Great camped for four days near the aqueduct at Jerwan.[35] The historians who travelled with him would have had ample time to investigate the enormous works around them, recording them in Greek. These first-hand accounts have not survived into modern times, but were quoted by later Greek writers.

King Sennacherib's garden was well-known not just for its beauty – a year-round oasis of lush green in a dusty summer landscape – but also for the marvelous feats of water engineering that maintained the garden.[36] There was a tradition of Assyrian royal garden building. King Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BC) had created a canal, which cut through the mountains. Fruit tree orchards were planted. Also mentioned were pines, cypresses and junipers; almond trees, date trees, ebony, rosewood, olive, oak, tamarisk, walnut, terebinth, ash, fir, pomegranate, pear, quince, fig, and grapes. A sculptured wall panel of Assurbanipal shows the garden in its maturity. One original panel[37] and the drawing of another[38] are held by the British Museum, although neither is on public display. Several features mentioned by the classical authors are discernible on these contemporary images.

Assyrian wall relief showing gardens in Nineveh

Of Sennacherib's palace, he mentions the massive limestone blocks that reinforce the flood defences. Parts of the palace were excavated by Austin Henry Layard in the mid-19th century. His citadel plan shows contours which would be consistent with Sennacherib's garden, but its position has not been confirmed. The area has been used as a military base in recent times, making it difficult to investigate further.

The irrigation of such a garden demanded an upgraded water supply to the city of Nineveh. The canals stretched over 50 kilometres (31 mi) into the mountains. Sennacherib was proud of the technologies he had employed and describes them in some detail on his inscriptions. At the headwater of Bavian (Khinnis)[39] his inscription mentions automatic sluice gates. An enormous aqueduct crossing the valley at Jerwan was constructed of over two million dressed stones. It used stone arches and waterproof cement.[40] On it is written:

Sennacherib king of the world king of Assyria. Over a great distance I had a watercourse directed to the environs of Nineveh, joining together the waters.... Over steep-sided valleys I spanned an aqueduct of white limestone blocks, I made those waters flow over it.

Sennacherib claimed that he had built a "Wonder for all Peoples", and said he was the first to deploy a new casting technique in place of the "lost-wax" process for his monumental (30 tonne) bronze castings. He was able to bring the water into his garden at a high level because it was sourced from further up in the mountains, and he then raised the water even higher by deploying his new water screws. This meant he could build a garden that towered above the landscape with large trees on the top of the terraces – a stunning artistic effect that surpassed those of his predecessors.

Plants[edit]

Date palms are a common tree species in Babylon.

The gardens, as depicted in artworks, featured blossoming flowers, ripe fruit, burbling waterfalls and terraces exuberant with rich foliage. Based on Babylonian literature, tradition, and the environmental characteristics of the area, some of the following plants may have been found in the gardens:[41][unreliable source?]

Imported plant varieties that may have been present in the gardens include the cedar, cypress, ebony, pomegranate, plum, rosewood, terebinth, juniper, oak, ash tree, fir, myrrh, walnut, and willow.[42] Some of these plants were suspended over the terraces and draped over its walls with arches underneath.

The "Garden Party" relief depicting Ashurbanipal with his wife seated under a pergola of climbing grapevines with hanging grapes, also small birds, surrounded with fruiting date palms and pine trees. The head of a defeated king hangs between the 1st and 2nd figures at left. North Palace, Nineveh, c. 645 BC.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Jump up to:a b c Stephanie Dalley (1993). "Ancient Mesopotamian Gardens and the Identification of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon Resolved". Garden History. 21 (1): 7. doi:10.2307/1587050. JSTOR 1587050.
  2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Reade, Julian (2000). "Alexander the Great and the Hanging Gardens of Babylon". Iraq. 62: 195–217. doi:10.2307/4200490. ISSN 0021-0889. JSTOR 4200490. S2CID 194130782.
  3. ^ Foster, Karen Polinger (2004). "The Hanging Gardens of Nineveh". Iraq. 66: 207–220. doi:10.2307/4200575. ISSN 0021-0889. JSTOR 4200575.
  4. ^ Jump up to:a b "The Hanging Gardens of Babylon". Retrieved 5 February 2014.
  5. ^ Jump up to:a b Cartwright M (July 2018). "Hanging Gardens of Babylon". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15 September 2018.
  6. ^ Jump up to:a b c Finkel (1988) p. 41.
  7. ^ Finkel (1988) p. 58.
  8. ^ Finkel, Irving; Seymour, Michael (2008). Babylon: City of Wonders. London: British Museum Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-7141-1171-1.
  9. ^ Finkel 2008
  10. ^ "The Hanging Gardens of Babylon". Retrieved 5 February 2014.
  11. ^ Dalley, Stephanie (2013). The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: an elusive World Wonder traced. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-966226-5.
  12. ^ Finkel (2008) p. 108.
  13. ^ Dalley, Stephanie (1994). "Nineveh, Babylon and the Hanging Gardens: Cuneiform and Classical Sources Reconciled". Iraq. 56: 45–58. doi:10.2307/4200384. ISSN 0021-0889. JSTOR 4200384.
  14. ^ Joseph. contr. Appion. lib. 1. c. 19.—Syncel. Chron. 220.—Euseb. Præp. Evan. lib. 9.
  15. ^ Diodorus Siculus II.10-1-10
  16. ^ History of Alexander V.1.35-5
  17. ^ Strabo, Geography XVI.1.5, translation adapted from H.L. Jones, Loeb Classical Library edn (1961).
  18. ^ The paradoxographer Philo of Byzantium should not be confused with the earlier engineer Philo of Byzantium. See Stephanie Dalley, "More about the Hanging Gardens," in Of Pots and Pans: Papers on the Archaeology and History of Mesopotamia and Syria as presented to David Oates on his 75th Birthday, Edited by L. al-Gailani-Werr, J.E. Curtis, H. Martin, A. McMahon, J. Oates and J.E. Reade, (London), pp. 67–73 ISBN 1-897750-62-5.
  19. ^ Dalley (2013), p. 40. Dalley bases her translation on Brodersen (1992) who uses an early Greek text. A previous translation by David Oates, based on a Latin text, is found in Finkel (1988) pp. 45–46.
  20. ^ Finkel (2008) p. 109.
  21. ^ Dalley (2013)
  22. ^ Priestley, Jessica (2014). Herodotus and Hellenistic culture: Literary Studies in the Reception of the Histories. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 91. ISBN 9780191510168.
  23. ^ Oates, Joan (1986). Babylon (Revised ed.). London: Thames and Hudson. p. 144. ISBN 0-500-27384-7.
  24. ^ Rollinger, Robert (2013). "Berossos and the Monuments". In Haubold, J.; et al. (eds.). The World of Berossos. Wiesbaden. p. 151. ISBN 978-3-447-06728-7.
  25. ^ Alberge, Dalya (5 May 2013). "Babylon's hanging garden: ancient scripts give clue to missing wonder". The Guardian. Retrieved 6 May 2013.
  26. ^ Dalley, Stephanie (2013) The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: an elusive World Wonder traced, Oxford University Press ISBN 978-0-19-966226-5.
  27. ^ AR George, Babylonian Topographical Texts, (1992)
  28. ^ see for example Cuneiform Texts in the British Museum, Vol 19, page 25, line 25
  29. ^ Pongratz-Leisten, Ina Sulmi Erub (1994),
  30. ^ See Dalley (2013) ch 1 for a summary.
  31. ^ Especially: the Iraq Museum prism dated 694 BC published by A Heidel, The Octagonal Sennacherib Prism in the Iraq Museum, Sumer 9 (1953); and the British Museum prism BM103000 of the same date
  32. ^ T Jacobsen and S Lloyd, Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan (1935); Reade, Studies in Assyrian Geography, Revue d'Assyriologie 72 (1978); Channel 4 TV programme Secret History: Finding Babylon's Hanging Garden, 24 November 2013
  33. ^ AH Layard, Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, (1853)
  34. ^ Dalley (2013), pp. 62–63
  35. ^ R Lane Fox, Alexander the Great (1973)
  36. ^ Stephanie Dalley (2013). The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: An Elusive World Wonder Traced. Oxford University Press. pp. 65–82. ISBN 978-0-19-966226-5. The quotations in this section are the translations of the author and are reproduced with the permission of OUP.
  37. ^ BM124939
  38. ^ Original Drawing IV 77
  39. ^ Layard (1853)
  40. ^ Jacobsen (1935)
  41. ^ The Lost Gardens of Babylon - Guide to Ancient Plants by PBS, May 2, 2014
  42. ^ Stephanie Dalley (2013). "page 48". The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon. OUP. ISBN 978-0-19-163932-6.

Sources[edit]

Further reading[edit]

  • Dalley, Stephanie. 1994. "Nineveh, Babylon and the Hanging Gardens: Cuneiform and Classical Sources Reconciled." Iraq 56: 45–58. doi:10.2307/4200384.
  • Norwich, John Julius. 2009. The Great Cities In History. London: Thames & Hudson.
  • Reade, Julian. 2000. "Alexander the Great and the Hanging Gardens of Babylon." Iraq 62: 195–217. doi:10.2307/4200490.

External links[edit]

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