2020/06/19

Commons - Wikipedia

Commons - Wikipedia



Commons

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This article is about the term "commons" in political economics. For the Wikimedia project, see Wikimedia Commons. For other uses, see Commons (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with common land.
The commons is the cultural and natural resources accessible to all members of a society, including natural materials such as air, water, and a habitable earth. These resources are held in common, not owned privately. Commons can also be understood as natural resources that groups of people (communities, user groups) manage for individual and collective benefit. Characteristically, this involves a variety of informal norms and values (social practice) employed for a governance mechanism.[1] Commons can be also defined as a social practice of governing a resource not by state or market but by a community of users that self-governs the resource through institutions that it creates .[2]

Definition and modern use[edit]

The Digital Library of the Commons defines "commons" as "a general term for shared resources in which each stakeholder has an equal interest".[3]
The term "commons" derives from the traditional English legal term for common land, which are also known as "commons", and was popularised in the modern sense as a shared resource term by the ecologist Garrett Hardin in an influential 1968 article called The Tragedy of the Commons. As Frank van Laerhoven and Elinor Ostrom have stated; "Prior to the publication of Hardin's article on the tragedy of the commons (1968), titles containing the words 'the commons', 'common pool resources', or 'common property' were very rare in the academic literature."[4]
Some texts make a distinction in usage between common ownership of the commons and collective ownership among a group of colleagues, such as in a producers' cooperative. The precision of this distinction is not always maintained.
The use of "commons" for natural resources has its roots in European intellectual history, where it referred to shared agricultural fields, grazing lands and forests that were, over a period of several hundred years, enclosed, claimed as private property for private use. In European political texts, the common wealth was the totality of the material riches of the world, such as the air, the water, the soil and the seed, all nature's bounty regarded as the inheritance of humanity as a whole, to be shared together. In this context, one may go back further, to the Roman legal category ''res communis'', applied to things common to all to be used and enjoyed by everyone, as opposed to res publica, applied to public property managed by the government.[5]

Type[edit]

Environmental resource[edit]

The examples below illustrate types of environmental commons.

European land use[edit]

Main article: Common land
Originally in medieval England the common was an integral part of the manor, and was thus legally part of the estate in land owned by the lord of the manor, but over which certain classes of manorial tenants and others held certain rights. By extension, the term "commons" has come to be applied to other resources which a community has rights or access to. The older texts use the word "common" to denote any such right, but more modern usage is to refer to particular rights of common, and to reserve the name "common" for the land over which the rights are exercised. A person who has a right in, or over, common land jointly with another or others is called a commoner.[6]
In middle Europe, commons (relatively small-scale agriculture in, especially, southern Germany, Austria, and the alpine countries) were kept, in some parts, till the present.[7] Some studies have compared the German and English dealings with the commons between late medieval times and the agrarian reforms of the 18th and 19th centuries. The UK was quite radical in doing away with and enclosing former commons, while southwestern Germany (and the alpine countries as e.g. Switzerland) had the most advanced commons structures, and were more inclined to keep them. The Lower Rhine region took an intermediate position.[8] However, the UK and the former dominions have till today a large amount of Crown land which often is used for community or conservation purposes.

Mongolian grasslands[edit]

Based on a research project by the Environmental and Cultural Conservation in Inner Asia (ECCIA) from 1992 to 1995, satellite images were used to compare the amount of land degradation due to livestock grazing in the regions of Mongolia, Russia, and China.[9] In Mongolia, where shepherds were permitted to move collectively between seasonal grazing pastures, degradation remained relatively low at approximately 9%. Comparatively, Russia and China, which mandated state-owned pastures involving immobile settlements and in some cases privatization by household, had much higher degradation, at around 75% and 33% respectively.[10] A collaborative effort on the part of Mongolians proved much more efficient in preserving grazing land.

Lobster fishery of Maine[edit]

Widespread success of the Maine lobster industry is often attributed to the willingness of Maine's lobstermen to uphold and support lobster conservation rules. These rules include harbor territories not recognized by the state, informal trap limits, and laws imposed by the state of Maine (which are largely influenced by lobbying from lobster industry itself).[11] Essentially, the lobstermen collaborate without much government intervention to sustain their common-pool resource.

Community forests in Nepal[edit]

In the late 1980s, Nepal chose to decentralize government control over forests. Community forest programs work by giving local areas a financial stake in nearby woodlands, and thereby increasing the incentive to protect them from overuse. Local institutions regulate harvesting and selling of timber and land, and must use any profit towards community development and preservation of the forests. In twenty years, locals have noticed a visible increase in the number of trees. Community forestry may also contribute to community development in rural areas – for instance school construction, irrigation and drinking water channel construction, and road construction. Community forestry has proven conducive to democratic practices at grass roots level.[12]

Irrigation systems of New Mexico[edit]

Main article: Acequia
Acequia is a method of collective responsibility and management for irrigation systems in desert areas. In New Mexico, a community-run organization known as Acequia Associations supervises water in terms of diversion, distribution, utilization, and recycling, in order to reinforce agricultural traditions and preserve water as a common resource for future generations.[13]

Cultural and intellectual commons[edit]

Today, the commons are also understood within a cultural sphere. These commons include literature, music, arts, design, film, video, television, radio, information, software and sites of heritage. Wikipedia is an example of the production and maintenance of common goods by a contributor community in the form of encyclopedic knowledge that can be freely accessed by anyone without a central authority.[14]
Tragedy of the commons in the Wiki-Commons is avoided by community control by individual authors within the Wikipedia community.[15]
The information commons may help protect users of commons. Companies that pollute the environment release information about what they are doing. The Corporate Toxics Information Project[16] and information like the Toxic 100, a list of the top 100 polluters,[17] helps people know what these corporations are doing to the environment.

Digital commons[edit]

Main article: Digital commons (economics)
Mayo Fuster Morell proposed a definition of digital commons as "information and knowledge resources that are collectively created and owned or shared between or among a community and that tend to be non-exclusive, that is, be (generally freely) available to third parties. Thus, they are oriented to favor use and reuse, rather than to exchange as a commodity. Additionally, the community of people building them can intervene in the governing of their interaction processes and of their shared resources."[18][19]
Examples of digital commons are Wikipedia, free software and open-source hardware projects.

Urban commons[edit]

Urban commons present the opportunity for the citizens to gain power upon the management of the urban resources and reframe city-life costs based on their use value and maintenance costs, rather than the market-driven value.[20]
Syntagma Square in Athens as urban commons
Tahrir Square in Cairo as urban commons
Urban commons situates citizens as key players rather than public authorities, private markets and technologies.[21] David Harvey (2012) defines the distinction between public spaces and urban commons. Public spaces and goods in the city make a commons when part of the citizens take political action. Syntagma Square in Athens, Tahrir Square in Cairo, and the Plaza de Catalunya in Barcelona were public spaces that transformed to an urban commons as people protested there to support their political statements. Streets are public spaces that have often become an urban commons by social action and revolutionary protests.[22] Urban commons are operating in the cities in a complementary way with the state and the market. Some examples are community gardening, urban farms on the rooftops and cultural spaces.[23] More recently participatory studies of commons and infrastructures under the conditions of the financial crisis have emerged.[24][25]

Knowledge commons[edit]

In 2007, Elinor Ostrom along with her colleague Charlotte Hess, did succeed in extending the commons debate to knowledge, approaching knowledge as a complex ecosystem that operates as a common – a shared resource that is subject to social dilemmas. The focus here was on the ready availability of digital forms of knowledge and associated possibilities to store, access and share it as a common. The connection between knowledge and commons may be made through identifying typical problems associated with natural resource commons, such as congestion, overharvesting, pollution and inequities, which also apply to knowledge. Then, effective alternatives (community-based, non-private, non-state), in line with those of natural commons (involving social rules, appropriate property rights and management structures), solutions are proposed. Thus, the commons metaphor is applied to social practice around knowledge. It is in this context that the present work proceeds, discussing the creation of depositories of knowledge through the organised, voluntary contributions of scholars (the research community, itself a social common), the problems that such knowledge commons might face (such as free-riding or disappearing assets), and the protection of knowledge commons from enclosure and commodification (in the form of intellectual property legislation, patenting, licensing and overpricing).[1] At this point, it is important to note the nature of knowledge and its complex and multi-layered qualities of non-rivalry and non-excludability. Unlike natural commons – which are both rival and excludable (only one person can use any one item or portion at a time and in so doing they use it up, it is consumed) and characterised by scarcity (they can be replenished but there are limits to this, such that consumption/destruction may overtake production/creation) – knowledge commons are characterised by abundance (they are non-rival and non-excludable and thus, in principle, not scarce, so not impelling competition and compelling governance). This abundance of knowledge commons has been celebrated through alternative models of knowledge production, such as Commons Based Peer Production (CBPP), and embodied in the free software movement. The CBPP model showed the power of networked, open collaboration and non-material incentives to produce better quality products (mainly software).[26]

Commoning as a process[edit]

Some scholars have coined the term commoning, which by its nature as a verb serves to emphasize the understanding of the commons as a process and a practice rather than as a static entity. Some authors[27] distinguish between the resources shared (the common-pool resources), the community who governs it, and commoning, that is, the process of coming together to manage such resources. Commoning thus adds another dimension to the commons, acknowledging the social practices entailed in the process of establishing and governing a commons.[28] These practices entail, for the community of commoners, the creation of a new way of living and acting together[29], thus involving a collective psychological shift: it also entails a process of subjectivization, where the commoners produce themselves as common subjects.[30]
The discussion of commoning as a process rather than as a fixed entity also serves to bring new elements to the discussion of the commons. Its focus on social relations endues such processes with an emancipatory potential. Importantly, even if some commons are temporary or fail according to a conventional understanding of the term, their contribution to the members of the community and the social practices and psychological shifts that have arisen are still influential, having contributed to creating new subjectivities and sensibilities. Therefore, in this understanding, commoning can be temporary and this does not entail a problem or a failure. Commoning is a learning process, and the so-called failure of some commons might result in the creation of new ones.

Economic theories[edit]

Tragedy of the commons[edit]

Main article: Tragedy of the commons
A commons failure theory, now called tragedy of the commons, originated in the 18th century.[7] In 1833 William Forster Lloyd introduced the concept by a hypothetical example of herders overusing a shared parcel of land on which they are each entitled to let their cows graze, to the detriment of all users of the common land.[31] The same concept has been called the "tragedy of the fishers", when over-fishing could cause stocks to plummet.[32] Forster’s pamphlet was little known, and it wasn’t until 1968, with the publication by the ecologist Garrett Hardin of the article “The Tragedy of the Commons”[33], that the term gained relevance. Hardin introduced this tragedy as a social dilemma, and aimed at exposing the inevitability of failure that he saw in the commons.
However, his argument has been widely criticized[34], since he is accused of having mistaken the commons, that is, resources held and managed in common by a community, with open access, that is, resources that are open to everyone but where it is difficult to restrict access or to establish rules. In the case of the commons, the community manages and sets the rules of access and use of the resource held in common: the fact of having a commons, then, does not mean that anyone is free to use the resource as they like. Studies by Ostrom and others[35] have shown that managing a resource as a commons often has positive outcomes and avoids the so-called tragedy of the commons, a fact that Hardin overlooked.
It has been said the dissolution of the traditional land commons played a watershed role in landscape development and cooperative land use patterns and property rights.[36] However, as in the British Isles, such changes took place over several centuries as a result of land enclosure.
Economist Peter Barnes has proposed a 'sky trust' to fix this tragedic problem in worldwide generic commons. He claims that the sky belongs to all the people, and companies do not have a right to over pollute. It is a type of cap and dividend program. Ultimately the goal would be to make polluting excessively more expensive than cleaning what is being put into the atmosphere.[37]

Successful commons[edit]

While the original work on the tragedy of the commons concept suggested that all commons were doomed to failure, they remain important in the modern world. Work by later economists has found many examples of successful commons, and Elinor Ostrom won the Nobel prize for analysing situations where they operate successfully.[38][35] For example, Ostrom found that grazing commons in the Swiss Alps have been run successfully for many hundreds of years by the farmers there.[39]
Allied to this is the "comedy of the commons" concept, where users of the commons are able to develop mechanisms to police their use to maintain, and possibly improve, the state of the commons.[40] This term was coined in an essay by legal scholar, Carol M. Rose, in 1986.[40][38][41]
Other related concepts are the inverse commons, cornucopia of the commons,[42] and triumph of the commons.[43][44] It is argued that some types of commons, such as open-source software, work better in the cornucopia of the commons; proponents say that, in those cases, "the grass grows taller when it is grazed on".[45]

Notable theorists[edit]

Feminist Perspectives on the Commons[edit]

Silvia Federici articulates a feminist perspective of the commons in her essay "Feminism and the Politics of the Commons".[46] Since the language around the commons has been largely appropriated by the World Bank as it sought to re-brand itself "the environmental guardian of the planet", she argues that it is important to adopt a commons discourse that actively resists this re-branding.[47] Secondly, articulations of the commons, although historically present and multiple have struggled to come together as a unified front. For the latter to happen she argues that a "commoning" or "commons" movement that is effectively able to resist capitalist forms of organizing labour and our livelihoods must look to women to take the lead in organizing the collectivization of our daily lives and the means of production.[47]

Women and the struggle for the Commons[edit]

Women have traditionally been at the forefront of struggles for commoning "as primary subjects of reproductive work". This proximity and dependence on communal natural resources has made women the most vulnerable by their privatization, and made them their most staunch defendants. Examples include: subsistence agriculture, credit associations such as tontine (money commons) and collectivizing reproductive labor. In "Caliban and the Witch",[48] Federici interprets the ascent of capitalism as a reactionary move to subvert the rising tide of communalism and to retain the basic social contract.

"Feminist Reconstructions" of the Commons[edit]

The process of commoning the material means of reproduction of human life is most promising in the struggle to "disentangle our livelihoods not only from the world market but also from the war machine and prison system." One of the main aims of the process of commoning is to create "common subjects" that are responsible to their communities. The notion of community is not understood as a "gated community", but as "a quality of relations, a principle of cooperation and responsibility to each other and the earth, the forsts, the seas, the animals.[47] In communalizing housework, one of the supporting pillars of human activity it is imperative that this sphere is "not negated but revolutionized." Communalizing housework also serves to de-naturalize it as women's labour, which has been a important part of the feminist struggle.[47]

Feminist Commons Movement[edit]

Abortion and Birth Control[edit]

As reproductive rights over unwanted pregnancies have been denied in many countries for many years, several resistance groups using diverse commoning strategies in order to provide women safe and affordable abortion. Care, knowledge, pills have been made commons against abortion restriction. In New York, U.S., the group Haven Coalition[49] volunteer provide pre and post abortion care for people who have to travel for abortion which is considered illegal in their places of origins, and with New York Abortion Access Fund[50], they are able to provide them with medical and financial assistance.[51] Underground networks outside male-dominant medical service establishments are where women's networks oversee the abortion and assist each other physically or emotionally by sharing the knowledge of herbalism or home abortion. These underground groups operate under codenames like Jane Collective in Chicago or Renata[52] in Arizona. Some groups like Women on Waves from Netherlands use international waters to conduct abortion. Also, in Italy, Obiezione Respinta movement[53] collaboratively map spaces related to birth control such as pharmacies, consultors, hospitals, and etc. through which users share their knowledge and experience of the place and provide access to information that is difficult to obtain.

Historical land commons movements[edit]

Contemporary commons movements[edit]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Jump up to:a b Basu, Soutrik; Jongerden, Joost; Ruivenkamp, Guido (17 March 2017). "Development of the drought tolerant variety Sahbhagi Dhan: exploring the concepts commons and community building". International Journal of the Commons. 11 (1): 144. doi:10.18352/ijc.673.
  2. ^ Classical theory based on Elinor Ostrom's book Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  3. ^ "Digital Library Of The Commons". dlc.dlib.indiana.edu.
  4. ^ Laerhoven, Frank Van; Ostrom, Elinor (2007). "Traditions and Trends in the Study of the Commons". International Journal of the Commons. 1: 3. doi:10.18352/ijc.76.
  5. ^ Basu, Soutrik; Jongerden, Joost; Ruivenkamp, Guido (March 17, 2017). "Development of the drought tolerant variety Sahbhagi Dhan: exploring the concepts commons and community building". International Journal of the Commons. 11: 144. doi:10.18352/ijc.673.
  6. ^ Anon. "Commoner". Farlex Inc. Retrieved 20 April 2012.
  7. ^ Jump up to:a b Radkau 2008, p. 90, ff in the German text
  8. ^ Hartmut Zückert, "Allmende und Allmendaufhebung". Vergleichende Studien zum Spätmittelalter bis zu den Agrarreformen des 18./19. Jahrhunderts (= Quellen und Forschungen zur Agrargeschichte; Bd. 47), Stuttgart: Lucius & Lucius 2003, IX + 462 S., 4 Farb-Abb., ISBN 978-3-8282-0226-9 review (in German)
  9. ^ Sneath, David (1998). "State Policy and Pasture Degradation in Inner Asia". Science Magazine. 281 (5380): 1147–1148. Bibcode:1998Sci...281.1147S. doi:10.1126/science.281.5380.1147. Retrieved 11 May 2011.
  10. ^ Ostrom, Elinor (1999). "Revisiting the Commons: Local Lessons, Global Challenges". Science Magazine. 284 (5412): 278–282. Bibcode:1999Sci...284..278.. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.510.4369. doi:10.1126/science.284.5412.278. PMID 10195886. Retrieved 11 May 2011.
  11. ^ Acheson, James (2004). Capturing the Commons: Devising Institutions to Manage the Maine Lobster. University Press of New England. ISBN 9781584653936.
  12. ^ Mehta, Trupti Parekh. "Community Forestry in India and Nepal". PERC Reports.Missing or empty |url= (help)
  13. ^ Davidson-Harden, Adam. "Local Control and Management of Our Water Commons: Stories of Rising to the Challenge" (PDF). www.ourwatercommons.org. Retrieved 11 May 2011.
  14. ^ Huberman, Bernardo A. (2008). "Crowdsourcing, Attention and Productivity". arXiv:0809.3030. Bibcode:2008arXiv0809.3030H. doi:10.2139/ssrn.1266996.
  15. ^ "Avoiding Tragedy in the Wiki-Commons", by Andrew George, 12 Va. J.L. & Tech. 8 (2007)
  16. ^ "Corporate Toxics Information Project". Political Economy Research Institute. PERI-Umass. Archived from the original on 2011-07-25.
  17. ^ Ash, Michael. "Justice in the Air" (PDF). PERI. PERI- Umass.
  18. ^ Fuster Morell, M. (2010, p. 5). Dissertation: Governance of online creation communities: Provision of infrastructure for the building of digital commons. http://www.onlinecreation.info/?page_id=338
  19. ^ Berry, David (21 February 2005). "The commons". Free Software Magazine. Archived from the original on 15 December 2009.
  20. ^ Dellenbaugh-Losse, M. (2017). "What makes urban commons different from other commons?" Urban Policy. Retrieved December 28, 2017
  21. ^ Sharing Cities: activating the Urban Commons Archived 2017-12-29 at the Wayback Machine. (2017). Mountain View: Shareable. Retrieved December 28, 2017
  22. ^ Harvey, D. (2013). "Rebel cities: from the right to the city to the urban revolution". London: Verso
  23. ^ C. Iaione. "The city as a commons" (personal communication, November 9, 2016) [Blog post]
  24. ^ Dalakoglou, D. (2016). "Infrastructural Gap: Commons, State and Anthropology". City vol. 6 (2)
  25. ^ "infra-demos". infra-demos.
  26. ^ Basu, Soutrik; Jongerden, Joost; Ruivenkamp, Guido (August 2017). "The emergence of a hybrid mode of knowledge production in the Generation Challenge Programme Rice Research Network (GCP-RRN) in India: Exploring the concept of Commons-Based Peer Production (CBPP)". Geoforum. 84: 107–116. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2017.06.008.
  27. ^ De Angelis, Massimo (2010-08-17). "The Production of Commons and the "Explosion" of the Middle Class". Antipode. 42 (4): 954–977. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8330.2010.00783.x. ISSN 0066-4812.
  28. ^ "Commoning - P2P Foundation". wiki.p2pfoundation.net. Retrieved 2020-04-28.
  29. ^ Euler, J. & Gauditz, L. (23 February 2017). "Commoning: a different way of living and acting together". Degrowth.info
  30. ^ Federici, Silvia (2012). Revolution at point zero : housework, reproduction, and feminist struggle. ISBN 978-1-77113-494-1. OCLC 1129596584.
  31. ^ Lloyd, William Forster (1833). "Two Lectures on Population". Population and Development Review. 6 (3): 473–496. JSTOR 1972412.
  32. ^ Samuel Bowles: Microeconomics: Behavior, Institutions, and Evolution, Princeton University Press, pp. 27–29 (2004) ISBN 0-691-09163-3
  33. ^ Hardin, G. (1968). The tragedy of the commons. Science, 162(3859), 1243-1248.
  34. ^ Frischmann, Brett. "The Tragedy of the Commons, Revisited". Scientific American Blog Network. Retrieved 2020-04-28.
  35. ^ Jump up to:a b Elinor Ostrom (2015). Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. ISBN 9781107569782.
  36. ^ The end of the commons as a watershed' The Age of Ecology, Joachim Radkau, John Wiley & Sons, 3 April 2014, p. 15 ff
  37. ^ Barnes, Peter (2000). Pie in the Sky. Washington D.C: Corporation for Enterprise Development. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-883187-32-3.
  38. ^ Jump up to:a b Rifkin, Jeremy. "10 – Comedy of the Commons". The Zero Marginal Cost Society: The Internet of Things, the Collaborative. Retrieved 2 February 2016.
  39. ^ "Remembering Elinor Ostrom, Nobel Laureate". NPR.org.
  40. ^ Jump up to:a b Rose, Carol M. (1986). "The Comedy of the Commons: Commerce, Custom, and Inherently Public Property". Faculty Scholarship Series: Paper 1828. Retrieved December 28, 2011.
  41. ^ The Drama of the Commons By Committee on the Human Dimensions of Global Change, National Research Council, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, Board on Environmental Change and Society
  42. ^ "The Cornucopia of the Commons: How to get volunteer labor". www.bricklin.com. Retrieved 2018-02-03.
  43. ^ Silent Theft: The Private Plunder of Our Common Wealth By David Bollier
  44. ^ Cox, Susan Jane Buck (1985). "No Tragedy of the Commons" (PDF). Environmental Ethics. 7 (1): 49–61. doi:10.5840/enviroethics1985716.
  45. ^ The Cathedral & the Bazaar: Musings on Linux and Open Source by an … By Eric Raymond
  46. ^ Federici, S. (2012). "Feminism and the Politics of the Commons". The Wealth of the Commons. Retrieved April 25, 2020.
  47. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Federici, S. (2012). "Feminism and the Politics of the Commons" In The Wealth of the Commons. Retrieved April 25, 2020
  48. ^ "Caliban and the Witch". www.akpress.org.
  49. ^ "Haven Coalition". Haven Coalition. Retrieved 2020-04-29.
  50. ^ "New York Abortion Access Fund | Connecting Rights to Resources". Retrieved 2020-04-29.
  51. ^ "The abortion underground: Groups quietly help women who have to travel to access care". NBC News. Retrieved 2020-04-29.
  52. ^ Liss-Schultz, Nina. "Inside the top-secret abortion underground". Mother Jones. Retrieved 2020-04-29.
  53. ^ "Obiezione Respinta". Obiezione Respinta. Retrieved 2020-04-29.

Further reading[edit]

Library resources about
Commons
  • Azzellini, Dario (2018). "Labour as a Commons: The Example of Worker-Recuperated Companies". Critical Sociology. 44 (4–5): 763–776. doi:10.1177/0896920516661856.
  • Basu, S.; Jongerden, J.; Ruivenkamp, G. (2017). "Development of the drought tolerant variety Sahbhagi Dhan: exploring the concepts commons and community building". International Journal of the Commons. 11 (1): 144–170. doi:10.18352/ijc.673.
  • Basu, S (2016). Knowledge production, Agriculture and Commons: The case of Generation Challenge Programme. (PhD Thesis). Netherlands: Wageningen University. Retrieved from [1].
  • Basu, S (2014). An alternative imagination to study commons: beyond state and beyond scientific establishment. Paper presented at the 2nd International Conference on Knowledge Commons for Sustainable Agricultural Innovations. Maringá, Brazil: Maringá State University.
  • Bollier, David. "The Commons". Public Sphere Project. Schuler. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
  • Bollier, David. (2014). "The Commons as a Template for Transformation." Great Transition Initiative.
  • Bollier, David and Helfrich, Silke (2012). "The Wealth of the Commons. A world beyond market & state. The Commons Strategy Group.
  • Bowers, Chet. (2006). Revitalizing the Commons: Cultural and Educational Sites of Resistance and Affirmation. Lexington Books.
  • Bowers, Chet. (2012). The Way Forward: Educational Reforms that Focus on the Cultural Commons and the Linguistic Roots of the Ecological Crisis. Eco-Justice Press.
  • Bresnihan, P. et Byrne, M. (2015). Escape into the city: Everyday practices of communing and the production of urban space in Dublin. Antipode 47(1), pp. 36–54.
  • Dalakoglou, Dimitris "Infrastructural gap: Commons, State and Anthropology". City 20(6).
  • Dellenbaugh, et al. (2015). Urban Commons: Moving beyond State and Market. Birkhäuser.
  • Eynaud, Philippe; Juan, Maïté; Mourey, Damien (2018). "Participatory Art as a Social Practice of Commoning to Reinvent the Right to the City". Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations. 29 (4): 621–636. doi:10.1007/s11266-018-0006-y.
  • Fourier, Charles. (1996). The Theory of the Four Movements (Cambridge University Press)
  • Gregg, Pauline. (2001). Free-Born John: A Biography of John Lilburne (Phoenix Press)
  • Harvey, Neil. (1998). The Chiapas Rebellion: The Struggle for Land and Democracy (Duke University Press)
  • Hill, Christopher. (1984). The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas During the English Revolution (Penguin)
  • Hill, Christopher. (2006). Winstanley ‘The Law of Freedom’ and other Writings (Cambridge University Press)
  • Hyde, Lewis. (2010). Common as Air: Revolution, Art and Ownership (Farrar, Straus and Giroux)
  • Kennedy, Kennedy. (2008). Diggers, Levellers, and Agrarian Capitalism: Radical Political Thought in 17th Century England (Lexington Books)
  • Kostakis, Vasilis and Bauwens, Michel. (2014). Network Society and Future Scenarios for a Collaborative Economy. (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan). (wiki)
  • Leaming, Hugo P. (1995). Hidden Americans: Maroons of Virginia and the Carolinas (Routledge)
  • Linebaugh, Peter, and Marcus Rediker. (2000). The Many-Headed Hydra: Sailors, Slaves, Commoners, and the Hidden History of the Revolutionary Atlantic (Boston: Beacon Press)
  • Linebaugh, Peter. (2008). The Magna Carta Manifesto: Liberties and Commons for All (University of California Press)
  • Lummis, Douglas. (1997). Radical Democracy (Cornell University Press)
  • Fabien Locher, « Les pâturages de la guerre froide. Garrett Hardin et la Tragédie des communs », Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, vol. 2013, no 1, 2013, p. 7-36. (abstract, read online [PDF])
  • Fabien Locher, « Third World Pastures. The Historical Roots of the Commons Paradigm (1965-1990) », Quaderni Storici, vol. 2013, no 1, 2013, p. 7-36. (read online [PDF]) (historical work based on Elinor Ostrom personal archives).
  • Mitchel, John Hanson. (1998). Trespassing: An Inquiry into the Private Ownership of Land (Perseus Books)
  • Neeson, J. M. (1996). Commoners: Common Right, Enclosure and Social Change in England, 1700–1820 (Cambridge University Press)
  • Negri, Antonio, and Michael Hardt. (2009). Commonwealth. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674060288
  • Newfont, Kathyn. (2012). Blue Ridge Commons: Environmental Activism and Forest History in Western North Carolina (The University of Georgia Press)
  • Patel, Raj. (2010). The Value of Nothing (Portobello Books)
  • Price, Richard, ed. (1979). Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas (The Johns Hopkins University Press)
  • Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph. (1994). What is Property? (Cambridge University Press)
  • Rexroth, Kenneth. (1974). Communalism: From Its Origins to the Twentieth Century (Seabury Press)
  • Rowe, Jonathan. (2013). Our Common Wealth: The Hidden Economy That Makes Everything Else Work (Berrett-Koehler)
  • Shantz, Jeff. (2013). Commonist Tendencies: Mutual Aid Beyond Communism. (Punctum)
  • Simon, Martin. (2014). Your Money or Your Life: time for both. Social Commons. (Freedom Favours)

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2020/06/15

北 협박 속… 범여 의원 173명은 “종전선언하자”

北 협박 속… 범여 의원 173명은 “종전선언하자”

北 협박 속… 범여 의원 173명은 “종전선언하자”
본문듣기 설정

기사입력2020.06.15. 오전 4:06

원본보기대북전단 살포를 빌미로 북한이 대남 비난을 맹렬히 퍼부어 남북 간 긴장이 높아진 14일 경기도 파주 임진각에서 관광객들이 독개다리를 바라보고 있다. 6·25전쟁 당시 끊어진 모습을 그대로 간직하고 있는 다리다. 파주=서영희 기자
북한발 무력도발 위협이 계속되는 상황에서 범여권 의원 173명이 15일 6·15 남북공동선언 20주년을 맞아 ‘한반도 종전선언 촉구 결의안’을 발의하기로 했다.

더불어민주당 김경협 의원이 대표 발의하는 결의안은 당사국인 남·북·미·중이 종전선언을 조속히 실행함과 동시에 법적 구속력을 갖는 평화협정 체결 논의의 시작을 촉구했다.

또 북·미 간 비핵화 협상 성과 도출, 남북의 남북정상선언 내용 이행, 신종 코로나바이러스감염증(코로나19)으로 고통받는 남북 주민 지원을 위한 남북 협력을 요구하는 내용 등도 담겼다. 김 의원은 “종전선언은 북측이 원하는 체제 보장에 긍정적 시그널로 작동해 비핵화 협상을 촉진하는 효과가 있다”고 말했다.
발의에는 이낙연 설훈 김한정 김홍걸 등 민주당 의원 168명과 정의당 배진교 이은주 의원, 열린민주당 최강욱 김진애 의원, 무소속 양정숙 의원 등 총 173명이 참여했다.

반면 미래통합당은 현 상황에서 종전선언 촉구 결의안을 발의하는 게 적절치 않다고 비판했다. 배준영 통합당 대변인은 “불안한 국민을 위해 사태 수습 계획과 의지를 먼저 밝히는 것이 책임 있는 정부·여당의 자세”라고 논평했다.

무소속 윤상현 의원도 종전선언이 북한의 핵 보유를 인정하고 주한미군 철수를 논의하게 되는 결과를 낳을 수 있다며 반발했다.

윤 의원은 “종전선언은 불량 국가를 정상 국가로 공인하는 것”이라며 “이러한 비약적인 위상 전환은 국가 핵 무력에 의해 이뤄지는 것으로, 국제사회로부터 북한이 핵 보유국 지위를 사실상 공인받는 것을 의미한다”고 지적했다.

신재희 기자 jshin@kmib.co.kr
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(13) Kang-nam Oh - 앞집 처녀 믿다가 장가 못 간다 -자주적 결단 ===== 미국 백인 경찰이 흑인 플로이드를...

(13) Kang-nam Oh - 앞집 처녀 믿다가 장가 못 간다 



Kang-nam Oh

2 hrs ·

앞집 처녀 믿다가 장가 못 간다



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미국 백인 경찰이 흑인 플로이드를 체포하는 과정에서 그의 목을 눌러 질식사하게 하므로 미국 각지에서 시위가 일어났다. 5월25일에 일어난 일인데 시위 덕으로 미국 하원에서는 6월8일 경찰 개혁법을 통과시켰다.



2018년 아카데미 최우수 작품상을 받은 영화 <Green Book>에 그려진 1962년대 미국 남부에서의 사정을 보면 그 당시 흑인들은 거의 인간 취급을 받지 못했음을 알 수 있다. 오늘도 플로이드 사건에서 보듯이 흑인들이 올바른 대접을 받지 못하는 것이 사실이지만 그래도 그 때보다 나아진 것만은 사실이다.



여기서 주목해야 할 것은 그나마 이렇게 나아진 것은 백인들의 선심에서 이루어진 것이 아니라 흑인들 자신이 쟁취한 결과라는 점이다.

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앞집 예쁜 처녀가 당연히 내 마누라가 되어 내 팔자를 고쳐 주리라 잔뜩 기대하며 살았는데, 그 예쁜 처녀는 훌쩍 딴 데로 시집을 가버렸다. 어쩔 수 없이 나는 노총각 신세로 떨어지고 말았다. 누가 내 팔자를 고쳐 주리라 막연히 기다리지 말고, 자기 운명은 자기가 적극적으로 개척하라는 말이렷다.



미국 흑인들의 경우도 마찬가지가 아닐까? 아브라함 링컨이 흑인들을 노예 신분에서 해방시켜준 위대한 대통령이었다. 그러나 한 가지 분명히 알고 넘어가야 할 사실이 있다. 아브라함 링컨이 남북전쟁을 치룬 주목적이 결코 흑인들을 위해서가 아니었다고 하는 것이다. 링컨 자신의 말을 인용하면 다음과 같다.



"이 싸움에서 나의 최대의 목적은 유니온(북미연합)을 살리자는 것이지 노예제도를 유지하려거나 없애려 하는 것이 아니다. 노예를 한 명도 해방시키지 않아도 유니온을 살릴 수 있다면 그렇게 하겠다. 더러는 해방시키고 더러는 그대로 둠으로 유니온을 살릴 수 있다면 그렇게도 하겠다."



흑인들에 대한 그의 생각은 그의 다음 발언에서 더욱 명백히 드러나고 있다.



"나는 어떤 형태로든 흑인종과 백인종의 사회적, 정치적 동등권을 이룩해야 한다고 하는 생각에 찬성할 마음도 없고 천성한 일도 없다는 사실, 그리고 흑인들에게 투표권이나 배심원이 될 자격을 준다거나 그들에게 공직을 감당하게 한다든가, 백인들과 결혼하게 한다는 생각에 찬성할 마음도 없고 찬성한 일도 없다는 사실을 분명히 천명하는 바이다. 덧붙여 말하고 싶은 것은, 흑인종과 백인종 사이에는 차이점이 너무나도 커서 내가 믿기로는 두 인종이 사회적, 정치적 동등권을 유지하면서 함께 산다고 하는 것이 불가능하다는 것이다. 두 인종이 함께 살 수 없지만 함께 살아야 할 경우라면 반드시 지위의 우열이 구분되어야 하겠고, 나도, 다른 사람들과 마찬가지로, 백인종에 부여된 우월권을 그대로 유지해야 한다는 생각에 동감하는 바이다." (James Cone, Black Theology and Black Power에서 인용.)



놀라운 사실이다. 다시 말하지만 흑인들이 오늘 미국에서 그나마 이 정도의 권리를 지니게 된 것도 따지고 보면 백인들의 선심에 의한 것이 아니라 흑인들 스스로가 노력해서 쟁취한 결과라는 것이다.



우리나라 사정, 우리 민족의 앞날을 생각하게 된다. 우리는 어느 나라한테 전시작전권까지 맡기고 우리를 위해 우리가 해야 할 일을 대신해 주리라는 기대를 너무 크게 하고 있는 것이 아닐까? 작게는 개인의 장가가는 문제에서부터 크게는 민족과 국가의 장래에 이르기까지 앞집 처녀만 믿고 사는 의타적 태도를 버리고 모두 자주적으로 계획하고, 결정하고, 해결해 나갈 지혜와 용기가 필요한 것 아닌가.

83강길모, Jaesoon Park and 81 others

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Chong Kim

Chong Kim 옳소. 건이 맞소

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Chong Kim

Chong Kim 상론을 여기서 말할 수 없지만 남북 전쟁은 남부와 북부의 경제적 갈등에서 비롯된 것이지 흑인의 해방을 위한 것이 결코 아니었습니다. 가령 북부는 흑은 노동력이 필요 했다든지.. 그리고 영국이 무역으로 남북을 이간 시킨 면도 있지요. 남부에서 농산물을 수입하고 공산품을 남부에 수출하면 북부가 타격을 받는 상황. 거의 모든 전쟁은 경제와 관련이 있다고 보면 틀림이 없음 . WW2, 6.25, 월남전 둥둥

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CK Park

CK Park 맞습니다!

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Chong Kim

Chong Kim 미국은 주기적으로 전쟁을 해야 산군복합체가 놀지 않고 돌아 갈 수 있습니다. Very dangerous !
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