Lecture Twenty-Six Muhammad the Prophet as Mystic
Scope: This lecture begins with an
initial characterization of Islam as a religion by means of comparison with
Judaism and Christianity, with particular attention to those elements that have
drawn the allegiance of more than a billion adherents all over the world. It
then turns to the life of the Prophet Muhammad, focusing especially on the
incidents in his life, including the night journey and the ascent to heaven,
that helped shape Islamic Mysticism. Finally, it gives attention to the special
character of the Qur’an, the “Mother of All Books” as a revelatory text and as
the source for mystical thought and experience within Islam.
Outline
I.
In the present historical
context, the understanding of Islam as a religion is both important and
difficult.
A.
The past and present
importance of Islam in world history is easy to assess.
1.
Islam’s sudden rise in the
7th century C.E. and its astonishing success as a religious
political movement over the succeeding centuries are matched by its
intellectual and cultural influence. 2.
In the contemporary world, the
geopolitical significance of Islam, particularly in its more assertive forms,
is impossible to ignore, but it is the worldwide importance of Islam precisely
as a religion that demands respectful attention.
B.
For outsiders, the
difficulties in studying Islam stem partly from historical bias and partly from
degrees of cultural distance for most observers.
1.
Christians in particular
have shown deep bias against Islam in language and practice.
2.
Linguistic and cultural
barriers have, until recently, kept many outsiders from a genuine engagement
with Islam.
C.
Islam is considered a
Western religion because of its structure, not because of its location.
1.
Islam is geographically and
demographically distributed throughout the world in the manner of Christianity.
2.
It belongs with Judaism and
Christianity because of its characteristic features: Monotheism, creation, revelation,
history, law, faith, and future, all combined in a vision both simple and
stringent.
II.
In every respect, Islam can
look to the Prophet of God, the Rasul
of Allah, Muhammad (570–632 C.E.) as its founder.
A.
Like Moses and Jesus,
Muhammad (meaning “highly praised”) is subject to intense interpretation within
the tradition; there are two main sources for his life.
1.
The Qur’an mentions many
aspects of the Prophet’s life and teaching in a nonsystematic and often
allusive manner.
2.
The Qur’an must be supplemented
by the Hadith, stories concerning the Prophet that proliferated among followers
after his death.
3.
Liberal and conservative
Muslims disagree on the degree to which these sources should be critically
analyzed.
B.
The significance of
Muhammad’s mission is best measured against its historical backdrop.
1.
Pre-Islamic Arabia
experienced profound social dislocation caused by the shift from Bedouin to
merchant existence, from rural life to urban life.
2.
The religious context was
one of native Polytheism, with some elements of Judaism and dissident
Christianity.
3.
Muhammad’s hometown of
Mecca housed the shrine of the Ka’bah, which was controlled by wealthy families
of the city.
C.
Muhammad’s early life
(570–610 C.E.) combined elements of normal endeavor and religious searching.
1.
A member of the Quraish
tribe, he was an orphan raised by an uncle who ran a well called Zamzam.
2.
Muhammad became the
business manager of a woman 15 years his senior, Kadijah, and married her in
595.
3.
Disturbed by the religious
and moral corruption in Mecca, he sought solitude and prayer at Mount Hira,
“wrapped in a mantle.”
D.
The Prophet’s call in 610
is, in the perspective of this course, a mystical experience.
1.
It is an encounter with the
divine mediated by the angel Gabriel (Sura 53:4–12).
2.
Muhammad is called to be a
prophet (Rasul) of Allah and to
proclaim that Allah alone is God to all people and that all should submit (islama) to Allah in every aspect of life
(Suras 96, 74, 73).
E.
After initial rejection,
the Prophet’s message spread—by teaching, battle, and negotiation—throughout
Arabia before his death.
1.
For 12 years in Mecca, his
message had little success; he was mocked and few followed him.
2.
The Hijrah in 622
established the center of Islam in Medina, where Muhammad continued to recite
the Qur’an, and began to extend the rule of Islam through Arabia.
3.
In 629–630, Muhammad made a
triumphant return to Mecca; he then returned to Medina, where he died in
632.
F.
Although Muhammad was the
founder and organizer of Islam, he can also be regarded as a mystic.
1.
He was not an ascetic and
resisted the tendency toward Monasticism; he died with many wives.
2.
Yet the revelation of the
Qur’an continued throughout his life, and tradition holds that he experienced a
mystical night journey to Jerusalem (Isra)
and an ascent to heaven (Mi’raj).
3.
For Muslims, the single
great miracle associated with Muhammad is the Qur’an.
III. The Qur’an—the “Mother of All Books”—provides the symbolic framework
for both Muslim life and mysticism.
A.
For Muslims, the Qur’an is,
in the original Arabic, the literal word of Allah revealed to Muhammad.
1.
It was dictated by the
angel Gabriel to Muhammad; his illiteracy emphasizes the miracle of revelation.
2.
It is a heavenly book,
existing already with Allah; Muhammad was inspired to recite what he heard.
B.
The Qur’an was revealed in
segments through all the stages of the Prophet’s career.
1.
The revelation began on
Mount Hira in 610 and continued both in the first period in Mecca and more
extensively in Medina.
2.
It was memorized by the
Prophet’s followers and only recorded after his death.
C.
Relatively simple in
arrangement, the Qur’an is stylistically powerful and complex in its contents.
1.
The 114 suras are arranged,
after the first, by length, running from the longest to the shortest; their
titles are roughly descriptive of content.
2.
They include content that
is prophetic, legal, and historical.
3.
The Qur’an shows knowledge
of Jewish and Christian traditions but reworks them thoroughly.
4.
It is a sacred text only in
the original Arabic, and its beauty makes it the source of all Islamic poetry and
prayer.
Recommended Reading:
Watt, W. M. Muhammad, Prophet and Statesman.
Questions to Consider:
1.
Compare and contrast the
Jewish and Christian understanding of their Scripture as inspired and the
Muslim understanding of the Qur’an.
2.
How does the career of
Muhammad follow the classic pattern of the biblical prophet but also deviate
from it?
Lecture Twenty-Seven The House of Islam
Scope: Islam as an exoteric tradition
has a coherent and relatively simple structure. Drawing from the Qur’an, we
examine, first, its basic convictions concerning God and the world, prophets
and books, and submission and infidelity. These elements are given expression
by the five pillars: the confession (shahadah),
prayer (salat), fasting (sawm), and
pilgrimage (Hajj). The Muslim community (umma)
is given structure through the system of law (Shari’ah) drawn from the Qur’an
and Hadith concerning the Prophet. The law, in turn, provides guidance through
an interpretive process involving reason and consensus among scholars.
Outline
I.
This lecture takes on the
basic structure of what is sometimes called the House of Islam. One of the
compelling aspects of Islam is the stark simplicity of its framework, which
places God and humans in clear relationship.
A.
As the name of the
tradition suggests, full submission (islama)
to God is demanded of every human being.
1.
Such faith, obedience, and
submission were first modeled by Abraham, the hanyf, or “righteous man.”
2.
The opposite of islama is called shirk—the disposition of the idolater and infidel who does not
submit to Allah.
B.
The essential structure of
the faith that distinguishes Islam is expressed by three succinct statements.
1.
The shahadah is the confession of faith: “I bear witness that there is
no God but Allah, and I bear witness that Muhammad is the Rasul of Allah” (ashaduan la
ilaha illa allah wa ashaduan muhammad rasul allah).
2.
The fatihah (“opening”) is the first sura of the Qur’an: “Praise be to
Allah, Lord of the worlds, the Beneficent, the Merciful, Owner of the Day of
Judgment, Thee alone do we worship; Thee alone we ask for help. Show us the
straight path, the path of those whom Thou has favored; not the path of those
who earn Thine anger nor of those who go astray.”
3.
The Besmillah is a formula that begins every sura in the Qur’an: “In
the name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful” (besmillah al-rachman al-rahim).
II.
The doctrine connected to
these simple professions of faith is equally straightforward and the classic
expression of the Western type of exoteric religion.
A.
The Monotheism of Islam is
strict and radical: Allah is alone God, the source of all creatures and in
control of all that happens.
1.
Humans are God’s special
creation and best demonstrate Allah’s true nature.
2.
Humans are created free to
respond to Allah or not, and their deeds are strictly judged by Allah.
B.
God revealed his will for
humans through a succession of prophets and the books that contain their
prophecy.
1.
All the prophets
(pre-Islamic Arabian, Old Testament, New Testament, and Muhammad) preach the
same basic message of repentance from idolatry to submission to the one true
God. 2. The message of the prophets is contained in Scripture: that of Moses
in Torah, that of David in Zalm (the Psalms), that of Jesus in the Gospels, and
that of Muhammad in the Qur’an.
3. The books of the Jews and
Christians, however, are corrupted, which is why a definitive prophecy was
required: Jews reject
Jesus and make Torah equal
to God, and Christians make Jesus a “partner of Allah.”
C.
The final judgment of
humans is based on their fidelity, their submission to the will of Allah, as
expressed in the deeds of their lives. The promise of a future resurrection is
literal and physical: The delights of the righteous are endless.
D.
This summary camouflages
real tensions that arise within Islamic thought and practice.
1.
Although the teaching is
simple and straightforward, some issues, such as that involving divine power
and human freedom, become endlessly complex.
2.
Similarly, Islam is both
historical and ultimate: Moses and Jesus are predecessors as prophets, but
Judaism and Christianity are wrong.
3.
Tension also exists between
universality and particularity: The principle of islama is open to all, but Muhammad must be recognized as the
Prophet; the Qur’an is meant for all but is to be read in worship only in
Arabic.
III. The House of Islam is supported by the five pillars of observance
required of all Muslims.
A.
There is no ritual entrance
into Islam except through the slow and deliberate enunciation of the shahadah. On practice, it is recited
many times during every prayer service.
B.
Islam is a religion of frequent
prayer (salat), consisting mainly of a series of prostrations, repeated
individually five times daily and in common at worship in the mosque.
C.
The sharing of possessions
through alms (zakat) takes place
through free-will offerings and a yearly tax, used to care for the poor and
needy.
D.
The practice of fasting (sawm) is restricted to Ramadan (the ninth lunar month) in memory of
the start of the recitation of the Qur’an and as discipline rather than as
penitence.
E.
Pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj)
is a once-a-lifetime obligation for those who are able to undertake it; the
pilgrimage involves elaborate stages of purification, ritual movement, and
prayer.
IV.
Like Judaism, Islam is a
way of life that ideally encompasses all of society. From the start, the law (Shari’ah)
has had a positive and important function.
A.
The material basis for law
is kitab (what is written in Qur’an) and Sunna (the example of the Prophet),
which can be derived from the Qur’an and Hadith.
B.
The formal basis for the
law is the process of interpretation.
1.
The principle of ijtihad (systematic original thinking)
applies logic and argumentation.
2.
Qiyas is the use of
analogical reasoning: The ancient case is applied to changed circumstances.
3.
Consensus (ijma’) is the agreement of the teachers
of the Islamic community concerning the legal determination.
C.
The role and relative
weight of these factors have been the cause of debate and division within
Islam.
Recommended Reading:
Rahman, F. Islam.
Questions to Consider:
1.
Consider the way that Islam
both affirms and negates the religious claims of Jews and Christians.
2.
How does the notion of the
“straight path” embrace both the individual Muslim and the Islamic community?
Lecture Twenty-Eight The Mystical Sect—Shi’a
Scope: Historical divisions within Islam
are connected to disputes concerning authority. In the Sunni tradition, four
schools of interpretation (the Maliki, Hanafi, Shafi’i, and Hanbali) place an
emphasis on different sources and procedures for determining the Sunna but are
mutually accepting. The sect or party called Shi’a, by contrast, locates the
heart of Islam in connection to the Prophet and the Prophet’s family; regards
authority to reside not in the umma
but in a prophetic imam descended from the fourth caliph, ‘Ali, who was
assassinated in 661 C.E.; and understands the principle of dissimulation
(taquiya) to apply both to history
and to the Qur’an. This lecture traces the origin of the Shi’a, its principles,
and its internal divisions.
Outline
I.
Islam emphasizes the unity
of God and the unity of the umma
(Muslim community), but like other historical religions, it has experienced
internal divisions.
A.
The Sunni tradition, to
which 8590 percent of Muslims worldwide adhere, has several distinct schools of
Shari’ah to make appropriate legal determinations related to striving in the
way of Allah.
1.
The Maliki (8th
century), centered in Medina, emphasizes the Hadith for the establishment of
the Sunna.
2.
The Hanafi (8th
century) centered in Kufa, Iran, emphasizes qiyas, that is, reasoning from
analogy.
3.
The Shafi’i (9th
century), centered in Mecca, Baghdad, and Cairo and accepted by the majority of
the Sunni tradition, is the most complex legal system, encompassing the Qur’an,
Hadith, qiyas, and ijma’ (the
principle of consensus).
4.
The Hanbali (9th
century) is a conservative reaction that restricts the Sunna to Qur’an and
Hadith; its contemporary importance stems from its adoption by the Wahhabi
reform movement of the 19th century.
B.
The most fundamental and
important conflict is that between the
Sunni tradition and the
Shi’a (meaning “party” or “sect”). The
Shi’a accounts for
approximately 1015 percent of Muslims worldwide but a majority in Iran (95
percent) and a substantial minority in other Middle Eastern countries.
II.
The origin of the division
is found in the institution of the caliphate, more precisely, the nature and
legitimacy of authority over the umma
after the death of the Prophet.
A.
The Sunnis accept
succession through the caliphate, a non-mystical and even secular authority
over the umma exercised through
(often-disputed) dynasties.
1.
The first of these
dynasties was the Orthodox Caliphate (632661 C.E.) in Medina; the first four
caliphs under this dynasty were Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and ‘Ali.
2.
The second dynasty, the
Umayyad Caliphate (661751), was centered in Damascus.
3.
The ‘Abbasid Caliphate of
Islam’s golden cultural age (7511258) was centered in Baghdad. This was the
most stable dynasty, with 37 caliphs.
4.
The Ottoman Caliphate
(12581924), in Istanbul, was a weak and often corrupt regime ended by the
Turkish ruler Mustafa Kemal.
B.
The Shi’a protests the
entire sequence of caliphs after ‘Ali: There are no legitimate heads of the umma within the caliphates, and
authority is located only in the imams (“leaders”) descended from the family of
the Prophet (Ahl al-Bayt, meaning
“people of the Prophet’s house”).
1.
‘Ali, the cousin and
son-in-law of Muhammad (husband of the Prophet’s daughter Fatima Zahra), was
the true successor from the start, even if “hidden.”
2.
The pivotal event in the
history of the Shi’a is the martyrdom of ‘Ali’s son Hussein, who led a revolt against
the illegitimate caliphate in 680 C.E.
C.
The dispute over succession
has led to dramatically different ways of viewing religious authority.
1.
For the Sunni tradition,
authority resides in the Shari’ah, interpreted by the experts (ulama) and
involving exoteric observance (fiqh).
2.
For the Shi’a, authority is
connection to the Prophet, teaching is vested in the imam, and the most
profound teaching is the esoteric understanding of the Qur’an and Hadith.
III. The Shi’a has developed its own distinctive set of convictions and
practices within the broad framework of Islam.
A.
Certain convictions, such
as ideas relating to God’s oneness (Tawhid),
justice (adalah), and final judgment
(Qiyama), are also found in the Sunni
tradition but given particular emphasis by the Shi’a. Other ideas are more
distinctive.
1.
The imam’s authority is
absolute; he is the Mahdi (“enlightened one”), sinless and infallible; in
extreme positions, he is a radiance of divine light or even an incarnation of
God.
2.
The Shi’a embodies a strong
element of loss and restoration: The origin of the sect was tragic, and
martyrdom is deeply imprinted in the tradition. The return of the 12th
imam, Muhhamad, who died or disappeared in 873 C.E., will restore the fortunes
of the oppressed devout.
3.
The principle of taquiya
(“dissimulation”) is extended to an esoteric understanding of authority (‘Ali
is the hidden imam) and the Qur’an (which reveals truths esoterically).
4.
The Shi’a has a powerful
sense of having suffered persecution from the Sunni throughout history.
B.
Beyond the five pillars
shared with all Muslims, which tend to be placed in a secondary position, are
practices distinctive to the Shi’a.
1.
An additional tax (khums) of one-fifth of income is
gathered and contributed to the imam.
2.
Striving in the way of
Allah (jihad) means resistance externally to Islam’s enemies and internally to
the lure of vices.
3.
An engaged and active style
of piety is found in the practices of “commanding what is good” and “forbidding
what is evil.”
4.
Similar sectarian
reinforcement is found in loving the Ahl
alBayt and dissociating from the enemies of the Ahl al-Bayt.
5.
The Shi’ites also have
special holidays: the Prophet’s birthday, the 12th imam’s birthday,
a commemoration of Hussein’s memory, the festival honoring Hussein’s household,
and the date of Muhammad’s proclamation of ‘Ali as the imam.
IV.
As inevitably happens with
religious splinter groups, the sectarian principle embedded in the Shi’a led to
still further divisions.
A.
The majority of the
Shi’ites are the Twelvers found predominately in Iran.
1.
This group recognizes 12
imams.
2.
The 12th imam,
Muhhamad, is believed simply to have removed himself and will return as the
Mahdi.
B.
The Seveners (Ismailites)
recognize only seven of the imams as authentic.
C.
At least four other
divisions can be identified, illustrating the truth that the more central a
symbol, the more likely it is to be the cause of religious division.
Recommended Reading:
Nasr, S. H. Ideals and Realities of Islam.
Questions to Consider:
1.
Compare the central place
of religious law in Judaism and Islam and its disputed place in Christianity.
2.
What aspects of the Shi’a
justify calling it a “mystical sect”?
