2019/09/10

Fryers Forest Eco-village - Holmgren Design

Fryers Forest Eco-village - Holmgren Design



Fryers Forest Eco-village

David Holmgren at Fryer's Forest in 2001
David Holmgren at Fryer’s Forest in 2001
Fryers Forest is a rural eco-village in central Victoria consisting of 11 residential titles (1 acre each) clustered within 300 acres of common native forest. In the mid 1990’s Samantha and Haridas Fairchild joined forces with David Holmgren and Su Dennett to develop the Fryers Forest eco-village using permaculture ethics and design principles. Since 1999 the Fryers Forest Owners Corporation has represented the lot owners in management of the community land and assets as well as governance of the private lots.
In the absence of a Fryers Forest Community website, Holmgren Design provides the following historical and limited information about the residential lots and round timber and firewood sales.

ECO-VILLAGE RESIDENTIAL LOTS

The first lots were sold by the developer (Fryers Forest Research and Development) in 1998 and the last was sold in 2006. Since then most lots have been developed and some have changed hands. Eight of the original couples are still residents and some second generation “foresters” maintain a strong connection to the place. The planning of the subdivision, infrastructure of roads, water supply and services as well as the community rules and guidelines were established using permaculture principles. Holmgren Design Services provided planning and design expertise as well as management throughout this process.
Fryers Forest Plan
Fryers Forest Land Management Plan
All of the 11 residential lots were sold by an informal “word of mouth getting to know you” approach. The inclusion here of the following flyer text is to provide general information rather than to directly recruit new community members.

WHAT FRYERS FOREST VILLAGE COMMUNITY MEMBERS GET:

1. Freehold title to rural residential block (approx. 1 acre) with the following features:
  • gravity fed dam water supply with allocation of 1.0 Megalitre
  • maintained road access
  • underground mains power with potential for solar grid feedback
  • telephone
  • planning permit
  • well drained sheltered site with good sun exposure
  • good views and privacy easements from adjacent blocks
Fryer's Forest Creek Crossing
1998 – Entering the village precinct at Fryers Forest over the Nuggerty Creek crossing with box wood rails from thinned forest.
2. Share ownership (one eleventh) of 120 ha (300 acres) of common land which provides the following amenities:
  • substantial water supply dams and amenity lake
  • extensive vehicle and pedestrian access system
  • serviced community building site and stage one construction fund
  • recreational parkland and managed common forest
  • opportunities for part livelihoods from working the common land
  • access to future timber, stone and agricultural produce at low prices
  • secluded location surrounded by state park catchment
  • Village Council with body corporate land management plan
  • increasing timber and capital values
3. Allotment and architectural design advice from Holmgren Design Services plus owners’ manual with detailed information and guidelines based on permaculture design principles.
4. Initial stock of dry firewood, bush timber and topsoil (from common land).

Fryer's Forest polesSUSTAINABLE FORESTRY

The common land at the Fryers Forest Community is being husbanded to encourage the growth of larger retained trees by thinning smaller and stunted trees. This provides yields of firewood and durable post and pole timbers. Wood is sold from the property to customers in the central Victorian and Melbourne region as part of a long term sustainable management which will improve both the ecological and timber asset values of the community land.

Introduction to Trauma - Brooklyn Institute for Social Research

Introduction to Trauma - Brooklyn Institute for Social Research

Introduction to Trauma
Instructor: Loren Dent
BISR Central
68 Jay Street, #308
Brooklyn, NY 11201


The rhetoric of trauma has saturated the medical, academic and political spheres in the past two decades, exemplified by the rapid rise of interdisciplinary trauma studies. In contemporary parlance, trauma is qualified as being acute, collective, complex, vicarious and intergenerational, and is implicated in clinical and political concerns ranging from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder to free speech debates. What is trauma, and how does it function both personally and collectively–at the level of culture, civil society, and politics?

This course will offer a critical introduction to the discourse of trauma as it relates to psychopathology, identity, and history. We will conceptualize trauma by tracing its history within psychoanalysis and empirical psychology, beginning with competing theories of traumatic hysteria between Sigmund Freud and Pierre Janet, and continuing to more recent relational and intersubjective accounts of trauma. Students will be encouraged to think through the implications of various theories of trauma on identity and subjective pain. Questions relating to both the origin of trauma in a given individual and the genealogy of trauma discourse will be addressed, as well as the critical problems that arise in thinking of collective traumas such as war, genocide and racism. 


Readings will include the work of 

  • Freud and Janet, 
  • Jean Laplanche, 
  • Philip Bromberg, 
  • Ricardo Ainslie, 
  • Dori Laub, 
  •  Bessel Van Der Kolk and 
  • Ruth Leys.



Course Schedule

Sunday, 2:00-5:00pm
September 22 — October 13, 2019
4 weeks


$315.00

Registration Open

평화연구 현황

평화연구 현황



평화연구의 현황과 학문적 유통
- 이론연구에서 운동으로...‘인간 안보’ 개념 강조돼 -

평화학(Science of Peace)이란 용어가 처음 사용된 건 1930년대의 독일학자 발트드 리히트에 의해서다. 그리고 이것이 평화연구(Peace Rearch)란 말로 정착된 건 1950년대 이후 냉전기에 스칸디나비아 지역학자들의 뛰어난 연구들을 거치면서다.

그러나 국내에 평화학이 하나의 학문으로 본격적으로 고개를 들이밀기 시작한 것은 그보다 훨씬 후인 1980년대 초반이다. 오슬로 국제평화연구소를 중심으로 요한 갈퉁 같은 평화학의 거목들과 실천적, 이론적 교섭이 쌓여가면서 평화를 인식론, 역사론, 국제관계론, 운동론(교육론) 등 여러 가지 계통을 세워 다뤄야 할 학문으로 간주하려는 경향이 자리잡기 시작했다. 삶의 모든 국면에서 '구조적 폭력'을 추방하는 적극적 평화를 주장한 갈퉁의 대표적 주저 '평화적 수단에 의한 평화'(들녘 刊)도 지난 2001년 국내에 번역 소개된 바 있다.

1990년대 이후 저변확대

이처럼 평화학은 학문의 역사가 짧다. 하지만 1990년대 이후 국내 평화연구는 그 저변이 빠르게 확대되고 있다. 특히 김대중 정부의 햇볕정책 이후 남북 평화체제 모색을 중심으로 한 국내정세론 및 국제관계학적 평화연구가 많이 이뤄지고 있으며, 전쟁과 테러의 위협이 국내의 삶에 밀접해지면서 관련 학술, 문화행사도 빈번해지고 있다. 그 과정에서 평화에 대한 학술적 접근도 체계화 양상을 띠고 있다.

하지만 평화학의 학문적 생산과 소통망에 대한 점검은 이뤄진 바가 없다. 이것은 아직까지 개별적 평화연구들이 충분한 상호텍스트성을 갖지 못했다는 걸 말해준다. 평화연구에서 중복과 동어반복이 많은 것도 이런 학문적 관계망이 형성되지 않은 영향이 크다고 할 것이다.

사실 사회과학을 표방한 큼지막한 연구소에서는 직간접적으로 평화문제를 다루고 있다. 예를 들면 고려대 아세아문제연구소나, 경남대 극동문제연구소, 연세대 동서문제연구소, 일민국제관계연구원 등이 국가간 교섭, 갈등, 지역분쟁, 평화체제와 관련된 연구를 내놓고 있다. 그리고 한림대 민족통합연구소, 원광대 통일문제연구소 등 민족통일 관련 연구소들도 마찬가지다. 국내 대부분 평화연구는 이런 식으로 동아시아나 남북관계의 특정한 정치적 상황을 개선하고자 하는 정책 연구가 주류를 이뤄왔다.

연구자 집단

1984년 경희대 평화복지대학원이 처음 생겨나면서 보편적 평화가 전면에 내걸리기 시작됐다. 평화복지대학원은 평화학 전공의 석사과정을 개설해 매 학기 석사를 배출하고 있으며, 이들 인력을 부설 연구소인 국제평화연구소를 통해 흡수, 평화연구를 재생산하는 구조를 정착시켜가고 있다. ‘Peace Forum'과 '평화연구'라는 학술지도 지속적으로 펴내고 있다.

지난 1989년 설립된 고려대 평화연구소(소장 최상용 고려대 정치학과 교수)는 본격적인 평화연구의 메카라 할 수 있다. 12명의 전임 연구인력으로 학술세미나와 학술지 '평화연구'(11호 발간)를 내는 등 체계적으로 활동한다. 주요연구영역을 보면 '평화문제 일반에 대한 철학적·이론적·역사적 연구', '한반도 평화통일의 조건과 방법 연구' 등 보편적 연구와 특수과제를 구분해서 설정하고 있는 게 눈에 띈다. 좀더 작은 단위로는 한국평화학회 회장을 역임한 하영선 서울대 교수(외교학)가 이끄는 국제관계연구회의 활동이 눈길을 끈다.

평화연구의 새로운 패러다임

냉전이 끝나면서 안보학이 인류라는 새로운 단위를 중심으로 패러다임적 재구성을 취하면서 평화학과 만나고 있다. 바로 '인간 안보'(human security)라는 개념을 통해서 말이다. 국제적, 국가적 차원의 평화에서 인간 개개인의 평화연구로 나아가는 게 평화학의 최근 추세라 할 수 있다. 이것은 필연적으로 평화학을 인권연구와 만나게 하고, 운동적 차원과 결합시킨다. 실제로 냉전 이후 평화학의 큰 특징 중의 하나로 평화교육의 중요성이 강조되는 것도 같은 맥락이다. 한국인권재단과 극동문제연구소가 협력해서 펴낸 '한반도의 평화와 인권(전2권)'(사람생각 刊)이 대표적 사례다. 시민단체에 의한 학술적 성과도 이쪽으로 분류가 가능하다. 평화네트워크 정욱식 대표가 최근 펴낸 '2003년 한반도의 전쟁과 평화'는 남북 평화체제의 현안에 초점을 맞춘다.

한편 기독교계나 불교계의 평화이념을 연구하면서 이를 '영성적 평화'를 추구하는 문화운동으로 발전시켜나가는 양상도 있다. 지난 2001년에 기독교계 대학교수들과 종교계 인사를 중심으로 '한국평화학회'도 만들어져서 활동중이다.

평화교육

평화교육을 보면 경희대 평화복지대학원의 평화안보학과 안에 평화학 석사과정이 있다. 그리고 2001년 전남대에 5·18연구소가 주축으로 민주, 인권, 평화를 전공하는 석박사과정이 생겼으며, 지난해에는 '단월드'(단학선원)가 천안에 국제평화대학원대학을 세워 평화 교육의 본격화를 외쳤다. 여기선 해외 평화관련 학자들을 객원교수로 적극 유치하고 향후 국제평화연구소를 세울 예정인데, 일단 단학선원이 준 종교집단으로 인식돼 있어 그 이미지를 벗으려고 노력중이다. 이 밖에 원광대 정치외교학과, 부산대 정치외교학과, 동국대 국제관계학과, 한신대 국제관계학과, 서울대 외교학과 등이 평화학을 전공과목으로 개설하고 있다.

대표적인 학자와 남은 과제들

국내 평화연구와 평화학을 상징하는 인물은 단연 리영희 한양대 석좌교수다. 리 교수는 평화를 억압당한 국내의 구조적 상황을 냉철하게 분석하고 고발해온 선구적인 연구자다. 그 아래의 중진급 연구자로는 정치사상 영역에서 평화연구를 오랫동안 해온 최상용 고려대 교수가 손꼽힌다. 이재봉 원광대 교수는 평화사상을 비롯 폭넓은 분야로 이동하며 논문들을 펴냈고, 이삼열 숭실대 교수는 평화이론 쪽에서 가장 선봉에 선 학자다. 그리고 평화체제와 군축에 관계된 연구에서는 이삼성 한림대 교수, 박건영 가톨릭대 교수, 이철기 동국대 교수 등이 몇편의 주목할 만한 논문을 쓰고 있다. 평화교육에서는 강순원 한신대 교수가 많이 거론된다. 그 외에 김명섭 한신대 교수, 이신화 고려대 교수, 김기정 연세대 교수 등 프로젝트성 연구로 평화에 관심을 갖기 시작하는 학자들이 늘고 있는 상황이라 평화연구자들의 저변은 계속 확대되고 있다.

평화학은 가치중립적 순수학문이 아니라 현실에 개입하는 실천적 학문이다. 김명섭 한신대 교수는 국내 평화연구에서 "영성적, 문화적, 환경적 측면의 평화, 몸의 평화, 이공계 연구와 평화학의 접맥, 전쟁유산의 평화적 활용, 여성과 평화" 등이 과제로 남아있다고 밝힌다. 평화운동가로 '멋진 통일운동 신나는 평화운동'(책세상 刊)을 쓴 김창수 씨는 "본격적인 평화연구가 부족하다는 얘기가 팽배해 있다. 우리나라의 전통 평화사상들을 좀더 체계화시키면서 서구의 이론하고 접목시키는 노력을 해야한다. 지금은 외국이론 소개 수준이고, '소극적/적극적 평화' 등의 개념도 모두 서구에서 만들어진 개념이다. 그리고 평화학이 굉장히 빨리 발전을 하고 있는데 우리나라가 처해있는 안보적 상황 때문에 이를 적극적으로 소화하지 못하는 경우도 있다. 그런 개념들을 한국적 상황에 맞는 개념으로 정립해야 한다. 그리고 평화학이란 옷을 입은 안보·군사연구도 빨리 없어져야 평화학이 명확한 방향을 설정할 수 있다"라고 평화학의 과제를 주문했다.

[교수신문] 2003년 08월 23일

이재봉 평화학에 관해

평화학에 관해

이재봉 (원광대학교 정치외교학/평화학 교수, 평화연구소장)


1. 평화학의 개념과 성격, 역사와 현황

평화학 (peace science, peace studies)은 동서고금을 통해 모든 인류의 궁극적인 목표라고 할 수 있는 평화에 관해 연구하고 이를 실현하기 위한 학문이다. 전쟁을 비롯한 모든 종류의 폭력을 배제하고 평화를 추구하기 위한 학문이기 때문에 ‘가치 중립적’이 아니라 ‘가치 지향적 학문’이다. 흔히 정치학이나 국제관계학의 한 분야로 생각하기 쉽지만 정치학, 경제학, 사회학을 비롯한 사회과학뿐만 아니라 인문과학, 자연과학 등 거의 모든 전문 분야에서 다루고 연구할 수 있는 ‘학제간 학문’이다.

평화학은 제 2차 세계대전 이후 북미와 유럽에서 발전되기 시작했다. 두 차례의 세계대전을 통한 대량 학살을 막기 위한 목적이었다. 특히 제 2차 세계대전에서의 핵무기 사용과 전후 냉전 체제에서의 핵무기 개발 경쟁에 대한 대응으로 1957년 캐나다에서 러셀 (Russell)과 아인슈타인 (Einstein)을 중심으로 국제학술회의가 열린 뒤부터 북미와 유럽에 평화연구 기관들이 연이어 세워지고 평화연구 학술지가 발간되기 시작했다.

1959년 미국에서는 불딩 (Boulding)과 래포포드 (Rapoport)의 주도로 미시건 대학에 갈등해결연구센터가 창설되고 Journal of Conflict Resolution이 발간되기 시작했다. 1959년엔 노르웨이에 갈퉁 (Galtung)의 주도로 오슬로평화연구소가 창립되고 곧 Journal of Peach Research가 발간되었다. 1961년엔 캐나다에 캐나다평화연구소가 세워졌고, 1963년엔 미국에 평화연구국제협회가 발족되었다. 나아가 1963년 스위스에서 퀘이커교의 후원으로 국제평화연구회의가 개최되었고, 이를 바탕으로 1964년 국제평화연구회 (International Peace Research Association, IPRA)가 창립되었다.

아시아에서는 일본과 인도에서 가장 먼저 평화학이 발전되기 시작했다. 일본은 세계 최초로 그리고 아직까지 유일하게 핵무기 피해를 당한 경험 때문에 구미의 평화학과 평화운동을 일찍 받아들였다. 인도에서는 간디의 ‘비폭력 저항’ 운동과 전통을 바탕으로 평화운동이 발전해왔다. 참고로, 간디는 저항을 하지 않은 ‘무저항’주의자가 아니라 적극적으로 저항한 ‘비폭력’ 저항주의자였다.

한국에서는 1980년대부터 평화학을 본격적으로 받아들이기 시작했다. 1984년 경희대학교에 평화복지대학원이 설립되었고 부설 연구소로 국제평화연구소가 들어섰으며, 1989년엔 고려대학교에 평화연구소가 세워졌다. 1990년대부터 다수의 대학에 평화학 강좌가 개설되기 시작했다. 나아가 2003년엔 평화학 전문 교육기관으로 천안에 국제평화대학원대학교가 문을 열었는데, 2008년 국제뇌교육종합대학원대학교로 이름이 바뀌었다.

2. 평화와 폭력의 개념과 종류

우리가 일상적으로 일컫는 평화, 또는 정치학이나 국제관계학을 비롯한 전통적 사회과학에서 말하는 평화는 대개 전쟁이 없는 상태로 정의된다. 그러나 질병이 없다고 건강하다고 말하기 어렵듯이, 전쟁이 없다고 해서 평화롭다고 말하기 곤란하다. 전쟁은 폭력의 한 형태일 뿐이다.

따라서 1960년대 초부터 서구에서 발전되기 시작한 평화학 또는 평화연구에서는 평화를 전쟁뿐만 아니라 모든 종류의 폭력이 없는 상태로 정의한다. 전쟁을 비롯해 사람의 목숨을 빼앗거나 신체에 피해를 가하는 직접적/물리적/신체적 폭력뿐만 아니라, 사회적 불평등이나 차별 같은 간접적/구조적/제도적 폭력까지 없어야 진정한 평화가 이룩될 수 있다는 인식이 깔려있는 것이다.

이에 따라 평화학자 또는 평화연구자들은 평화를 크게 두 가지로 나누어, 물리적 폭력이 없는 상태를 ‘소극적 평화 (negative peace)’라 부르고, 구조적 폭력까지 없는 상태를 ‘적극적 평화 (positive peace)’라 일컫는다. 이를 다른 말로 바꾼다면, 전자는 ‘국가 안보 (national security) 개념의 평화’ 또는 ‘좁은 의미의 평화’로, 후자는 ‘인간 안보 (human security) 개념의 평화’ 또는 ‘넓은 의미의 평화’로 부를 수 있을 것이다.

이렇듯 평화를 모든 종류의 폭력이 없는 상태로 정의한다면, 폭력의 개념을 구체적으로 정리해볼 필요가 있다. 폭력은 일반적으로 사람이나 재물에 물리적 피해를 가하는 인간의 공격적 행위를 일컫는다. 그러나 폭력에 관하여 연구하는 사회과학자들 중에는 사회적 통념에 따라 폭력의 개념을 “제도화된 행위 유형으로부터의 일탈”로 한정하는 경향이 있다. 폭력의 개념을 비합법적이거나 공인되지 않는 무력의 사용으로만 규정하는 것이다. 그들은 국법을 어기거나 국가를 대표하는 기관에 대한 물리적 폭력 행위에 연구의 초점을 맞추면서, 그러한 물리적 폭력을 초래한 법률과 정부에 의한 구조적 폭력은 연구 대상으로 삼지 않는다.

그러나 실질적으로 폭력은 지배 세력이 그들의 권력이나 기득권을 유지하기 위하여 흔하게 그리고 효과적으로 행사하고 있으며, 피지배층은 그들이 처한 상황을 개선하기 위하여 덜 흔하게 그리고 덜 효과적으로 사용하고 있다. 지배 세력의 통치 또는 ‘위로부터의 폭력 (violence from above)’이 피지배층의 저항 또는 ‘아래로부터의 폭력 (violence from below)’을 부르는 것이다. 여기에서 지배 세력의 구조적 폭력은 크고 체계적이지만 지속적이기 때문에 잘 드러나지 않으며 드러나더라도 정당하다고 묵인되기 쉽다. 그러나 피지배층의 물리적 폭력은 작고 국지적이지만 일시적이기 때문에 쉽게 눈에 띄고 불법 행위로 간주되는 특징이 있다.

사회과학이 일반적으로 폭력의 개념을 피지배층의 불법 행위에 초점을 맞추면서 법률과 제도들에 의해 가해지는 피해를 무시하는 경향에 처음으로 반발을 보인 집단이 갈퉁을 비롯한 서구의 평화연구자들이었다. 갈퉁은 폭력을 “인간의 기본적인 욕구에 대한 피할 수 있는 모독”이라고 정의함으로써, 목숨을 잃더라도 그것이 피할 수 없는 경우라면 폭력이 행사되지 않았음을 강조한다. 예를 들어, 어떤 사람이 병을 얻거나 사고를 당한 후 병원비가 없다는 등의 이유로 의사의 적절한 치료를 받지 못해 죽었다면, 이 죽음은 피할 수 있었기 때문에 구조적 폭력이 있었다고 볼 수 있다. 그러나 의사의 적절한 치료에도 불구하고 현재의 의료 자원과 기술로는 고칠 수 없는 질병이나 치명적인 사고 때문에 죽었다면, 이 경우는 피할 수 없는 죽음이었기 때문에 폭력이 있었다고 할 수 없다는 것이다.

그는 인간의 기본적인 욕구를 생존에 대한 욕구 (survival needs), 복지에 대한 욕구 (well-being needs), 정체성에 대한 욕구 (identity needs), 그리고 자유에 대한 욕구 (freedom needs)의 네 가지로 분류하고 있다. 이것은 데이비스 (Davies)가 정치적 폭력을 분석하며 임상심리학자 매슬로우 (Maslow)의 연구를 인용하여 인간의 기본적인 욕구를 신체적 욕구 (physical needs), 사회적‧애정적 욕구 (social-affectional needs), 자존 또는 품위에 대한 욕구 (self-esteem or dignity needs), 그리고 자아실현에 대한 욕구 (self-actualization needs) 등 네 가지로 분류한 것과 비슷하다.

첫째, 생존에 대한 욕구를 모독하는 행위는 목숨을 앗아가는 것과 같은 폭력이다. 무엇 보다 먼저 전쟁이나 사형제도 등을 들 수 있다. 둘째, 복지에 대한 욕구를 모독하는 행위는 생명을 불구로 만드는 것과 같은 폭력으로 경제제재나 봉쇄가 이에 포함된다. 예를 들어, 경제 제재는 직접적이고 즉각적으로 목숨을 빼앗지는 않지만, 식품이나 의약품이 적절하게 공급되지 못하게 함으로써 천천히 그러나 의도적으로 생명을 박탈하는 행위와 마찬가지다. 셋째, 정체성에 대한 욕구를 모독하는 행위는 소외시키는 것과 같은 폭력이다. 이러한 예로는 여성이나 소수 민족 등 어느 특정 부류의 사람들을 차별하는 행위를 들 수 있다. 넷째, 자유에 대한 욕구를 모독하는 행위는 억압하는 것과 같은 폭력으로 감금이나 추방 등이 이에 포함된다.

그리고 갈퉁은 구조적 폭력을 “[인간이 지금과 다른 상태로] 될 수 있었던 잠재력과 현재 처해있는 상태와의 차이를 제공하는 요인 (the cause of the difference between the potential and the actual, between what could have been and what is)”으로 정의한다. 이에 덧붙여 잠재력과 현 상태의 간격을 넓히는 요인이나 그 간격을 좁히는 데 방해가 되는 요인도 물론 구조적 폭력으로 간주한다. 여기에는 자원의 불평등한 분배를 비롯한 착취 (exploitation), 피지배층의 자율성이나 자치권 확보를 저지하는 침투 (penetration), 피지배층을 서로 격리시키는 분열 (fragmentation), 그리고 피지배층에 대한 탈사회화 같은 소외화 (marginalization) 등 크게 네 가지 범주가 포함된다.

예를 들어, 사회적 자원의 불공평한 분배로 어떤 사람들의 기본적 욕구에 대한 박탈이 방치된다면 폭력은 이미 사회 구조에 내재된 것이다. 이 경우 지배 세력이나 자본가들을 비롯해 폭력의 구조화를 통해 이득을 취할 수 있는 집단들은 그들의 기득권을 지키기 위해 현상을 유지하려고 힘쓰게 되며, 피지배층이 자신들의 해방을 추구한다면 이를 막기 위한 지배 세력의 구조적 폭력은 지속되고 강화될 것이다.

여기에서 정치적 폭력에 관한 연구를 하는 정치심리학자들에 의한 좁은 의미의 폭력과 적극적 평화를 추구하는 평화학자들에 의한 넓은 의미의 폭력 사이에 근본적인 개념의 차이가 발견된다. 데이비스는 사람들이 기대하는 것과 실제로 얻는 것 사이에 ‘참을 수 없는 격차 (intolerable gap)’가 생기거나 피지배층의 가장 기본적인 욕구가 지배 세력에 의해 충족되지 않으면 데모나 혁명 같은 정치적 폭력이 발생하기 쉽다고 했다. 파이어러벤드 (Feierabend) 부부는 사회적 기대치와 사회적 만족도 혹은 성취도 사이의 격차를 나타내는 ‘체계적 좌절 (systemic frustration)’이 공격적이고 폭력적인 정치 행위를 유발한다고 했다. 그리고 거어 (Gurr)는 사람들이 당연히 받아야 할 것과 실제로 얻을 수 있는 것 사이의 격차를 뜻하는 ‘상대적 박탈 (relative deprivation)’이 시민의 폭력을 초래하는 주된 요인이라고 보았다. 또한 갈퉁 자신도 구조적 폭력이라는 개념을 쓰기 전에는 사람들이 원하는 것과 실제로 성취하는 것의 격차 등을 나타내는 ‘계층 불균형 (rank disequilibrium)’이 범죄나 혁명 등의 공격적 행위를 유발하게 된다고 했다. 즉, 정치심리학자들은 사람들이 기대하는 것과 실제로 성취하는 것 사이의 격차 또는 기본적인 욕구가 좌절되는 것이 정치적 폭력의 요인이라고 분석한 반면, 평화학자들은 그러한 격차를 발생시키거나 욕구를 좌절시키는 요인이랄 수 있는 사회적 불공평 자체가 구조적 폭력이라고 정의하는 것이다.

갈퉁은 구조적 폭력이란 개념을 처음으로 사용한 뒤 약 20년만에 문화적 폭력이란 개념을 소개했다. 그는 문화적 폭력을 “직접적 폭력이나 구조적 폭력을 정당화하거나 합법화하는 데 사용될 수 있는 문화의 측면”이라고 정의하면서 이에 종교와 사상, 언어와 예술, 그리고 과학과 학문 등의 폭력성을 포함시키고 있다. 종교나 예술 혹은 학문 등을 통해 직접적 폭력 행위나 구조적 폭력의 실체가 정당하다거나 최소한 잘못된 것은 아니라고 간주하게 함으로써 폭력의 사용이 합법화되거나 일반적으로 용인되는 것이 문화적 폭력이라는 것이다. 그리고 문화적 폭력의 한 가지 중요한 유형은 구조적 폭력의 희생자들이 현 상태를 타파하기 위해 항거하는 경우 지배 세력은 사회의 안정을 꾀한다는 구실로 그들을 범법자 혹은 불순 세력으로 낙인찍어 그들을 비난하며 그들에 대한 폭력을 정당화하는 것이다.

이상과 같은 세 가지 유형의 폭력은 서로 별개의 것이 아니라 밀접하게 연관되어 있어서 명확하게 경계선을 긋기가 쉽지 않다. 폭력은 폭력을 낳는다는 말처럼 어느 한 종류의 폭력은 다른 종류의 폭력을 초래하기 때문이다. 예를 들어, 물리적 폭력이 반복되고 확산되면 폭력적 사회구조가 제도화한다. 이에 따라 폭력적 문화가 내면화하면 구조적 폭력이 생활과 습관처럼 굳어져버리는 문화적 폭력이 된다. 따라서 직접적/물리적/신체적 폭력은 사건 (event)과 같고, 간접적/구조적/제도적 폭력은 절차 (process)와 같으며, 문화적 폭력은 상수 (invariant) 또는 영속적인 것 (permanence)과 같다고 할 수 있다.

이 가운데 직접적/물리적/신체적 폭력은 구체적 행위자에 의해서 물리적으로 자행되기 때문에 동적이고 잘 드러나며, 그것이 불법적이거나 비도덕적이라는 인식을 준다. 이에 반해 간접적/구조적/제도적 폭력은 법이나 제도 등에 의해 구조적으로 자행되기 때문에 전자보다 훨씬 심각한 폭력성을 내포해도 정적이고 쉽게 눈에 띄지 않으며, 사회구조에 내재하기 때문에 당연한 것으로 간주된다. 나아가 문화적 폭력은 폭력이 생활이나 습관이 되어버린 상태이기 때문에, 폭력이 폭력인지조차 인식하지 못하게 되고 폭력의 피해자가 가해자가 되기도 한다. 우리가 대체로 물리적 폭력에 대해서는 크게 비난하면서도, 구조적 폭력에는 별로 관심을 갖지 못하고, 문화적 폭력은 인식조차 하지 못하는 배경이다. 게다가 직접적/물리적/신체적 폭력은 육체를 불구로 만들지만, 간접적/구조적/제도적 폭력이나 문화적 폭력은 정신이나 의식을 마비로 이끌기 쉽다.

3. 한국 사회의 독특하고 심각한 구조적 폭력

(1) 사상에 대한 폭력: 국가보안법의 남용과 오용 및 극심한 반공주의에 따른 인간성 파괴

사상이란 사람의 마음 속에 들어 있는 인생관이나 세계관 또는 정치적 신조나 사회적 견해를 뜻한다. 사상이 안에 머무르지 않고 밖으로 나타나면 언론, 출판, 집회, 결사의 자유와 결합되며, 진리 탐구와 연결되면 학문의 자유로, 신앙으로 이어지면 종교의 자유로 발전된다. 따라서 “사상의 자유는 모든 정신적, 정치적 자유의 원리적 기초이며 기본권 중의 기본권”인 것이다.

그러나 우리는 개인의 자유를 핵심으로 삼는 자유민주주의를 지향하는 사회에 살면서도 무려 60년이 지나도록 사상의 자유를 포함한 기본적 인권을 박탈당하고 있다. 사상 때문에 분단과 전쟁을 겪으며, 사회주의를 지향하는 북한과 대치하고 있다는 구실에서다. 남한에서는 헌법 제 1조에서부터 자유민주주의를 내세우지만 가장 기본적인 자유조차 크게 제한하고 있으며, 북한에서는 나라 이름에서부터 인민민주주의를 앞세우지만 인민의 기본적인 생활조차 제대로 지켜 주지 못하는 어처구니없는 현실을 보게 된다.

개인의 자유를 가장 중시한다는 정치 체제 아래서 인간의 가장 기본적인 권리인 사상의 자유가 제한당하는 폭력적 사회 구조가 만들어지는 모순은 일차적으로 국가 보안법의 남용과 오용 그리고 그에 따라 사회에 널리 퍼져 있는 극심한 반공주의와 ‘적색 공포증’ 때문이다.

따라서 국가 보안법은 사상의 자유와 그와 연결된 언론, 출판, 집회, 결사를 포함한 표현의 자유를 근본적으로 박탈하며, 학문과 문화의 발전을 해치고 종교활동 및 평화운동까지 위축시키며 온 사회를 ‘창살없는 감옥’으로 이끄는 구조적 폭력이다. 반공은 궁극적으로 자유민주주의를 지키기 위한 것이지만, 국가보안법은 “자유민주주의를 외치며 가장 비자유주의적이고 비민주주의적 방법으로” 인간성을 파괴하고 사회의 발전을 방해하며, 통일의 한쪽 주체인 북한을 반국가단체로 규정함으로써 민족 통일을 가로 막고 분단 체제의 모순을 심화하는 구조적 폭력인 것이다. 나아가 이러한 구조적 폭력이 남북한이 대치하고 있는 분단 상태에서는 당연한 것처럼 여기도록 이끌고, 반공을 위해서라면 다른 가치는 다소 희생되어도 좋다는 사회 분위기를 만들어 가는 것은 문화적 폭력이라고 할 수 있다.

(2) 여성에 대한 폭력: 유교사상과 가부장제의 전통이 빚어내는 여성 차별

여성은 인구의 절반이다. 절반의 인구가 다양한 방법으로 폭력을 당하거나 스스로에게 폭력을 가하고 있다. 개인의 능력이나 자질에 관계없이 오로지 여성이라는 이유로 폭력을 당하거나 가하고 있는 것이다. 여성에 대한 폭력은 동서고금을 통해 나타난 현상이지만, 한국 사회에서는 유교적 가부장제의 전통과 영향에 따라 여성에 대한 폭력이 문화가 되어버렸고, 그러한 폭력적 문화 (violent culture)는 다시 문화적 폭력 (cultural violence)으로 이어졌다.

첫째, 여성에 대한 직접적/물리적/신체적 폭력은 남성의 완력과 만용이 여성에게 물리적으로 휘두르는 폭력이다. 이러한 폭력의 사례는 가정에서 매맞는 아내를 통해 찾아볼 수 있고, 사회에서는 성폭력 등으로 드러난다.

둘째, 여성에 대한 간접적/구조적/제도적 폭력은 각종 법률과 제도를 포함한 사회구조를 통해 여성들이 당하는 차별과 그에 따른 사회적 불평등을 일컫는다. 예를 들어, 여성들의 사회 진출 욕구가 늘어도 취업하기가 어렵고, 일자리를 잡아도 직종이나 작업 조건, 직업 안정성 및 승진 기회, 그리고 임금 등에서 극심한 차별을 받기 쉽다.

셋째, 여성에 대한 문화적 폭력은 여성에 대한 직접적 폭력이나 구조적 폭력을 정당화하거나 재생산하는 문화를 일컫는다. 학문과 예술, 그리고 종교와 전통 등을 통해 여성에 대한 차별과 남녀불평등이 당연하게 여겨지거나 조장되어 그러한 폭력이 생활과 습관으로 되어버리는 현상이다.

따라서 여성에 대한 물리적 폭력은 주로 남성에 의해, 구조적 폭력은 주로 사회제도와 법률에 의해, 문화적 폭력은 여성 스스로에 의해서도 가해지고 있는 것이다.

4. 평화학과 평화운동의 목표와 방법: 폭력 없는 세상으로 가는 길

평화학 또는 평화운동에서는 목표로서의 평화뿐만 아니라 수단으로서의 평화도 중시한다. 누구든지 목표로서의 평화는 중시하면서도 수단 또는 과정으로서의 평화에는 소홀하기 쉬운데, 평화는 어떠한 경우에라도 평화적 수단으로 성취해야 한다는 것이다. 예를 들어, 목적이 수단을 정당화할 수 없듯이, 평화를 위해 전쟁을 일으키는 모순을 용인할 수 없다는 뜻이다.

평화를 평화적으로 또는 비폭력적으로 성취하기 위한 운동은 세계 곳곳에서 일어나고 있다. 폭력 없는 세상을 이루기 위한 획기적 사례를 들자면 사형제 폐지, 병역 의무에 대한 양심적 거부 인정, 군대 폐지, 비폭력 민방위대 설립, 전쟁세 폐지, 대량 살상 무기 폐기, 지뢰 제거 등을 들 수 있다. 이 가운데 처음 세 가지만 아래에 소개한다.

첫째, 2009년까지 세계 약 200개국 가운데 이탈리아 (1947), 독일 (1949), 영국 (1973), 프랑스 (1981) 등 94개국이 모든 범죄에 대하여 사형제를 완전히 폐지하였다. 사형제를 폐지한 나라가 1987년까지는 28개, 그리고 1990년까지는 39개에 머물렀는데 2000년대 들어 두 배 이상으로 크게 늘어난 것이다. 이에 덧붙여 10개 나라는 일반 범죄에 대해서는 사형제를 폐지하고 계엄이나 전쟁 등 특별한 상황에서만 부분적으로 사형제를 유지하고 있다. 또한 35개국에서는 사형제를 법적으로는 폐지하지 않고 있지만, 10년 이상 단 한 번도 사형을 집행하지 않은 실질적 폐지국이다. 이에 반하여 미국 (미시건, 뉴욕 등 15개 주에서는 폐지), 중국, 일본 등 68개국에서 사형제를 법적으로 유지하며 지속적으로 살인을 저지르고 있다.

둘째, 강력한 군대를 유지하고 있으면서도 국가가 징병에 대한 인민의 양심적 거부를 인정하는 나라가 적지 않다. 1998년 현재 미국, 러시아, 프랑스, 독일, 이스라엘 등 47개국이 병역 의무에 대한 양심적 거부를 인정하고 있다. 이러한 나라가 1972년에는 28개국, 1988년에는 31개국이었지만 꾸준히 늘고 있는 것이다. 참고로 독일이 분단되어 있을 때 서독이 동독과 대치하고 있으면서도 1949년의 기본법 제 4조에서 “어느 누구도 자신의 양심에 반하여 무기를 지니고 전쟁 업무에 강요받지 않을 것이다”고 밝힌 것은 주목할 만하다.

셋째, 2001년 현재 27개국은 군대를 가지고 있지 않다. 이 가운데 코스타리카, 도미니카, 그레나다, 아이티, 파나마 등 19개 나라는 군대도 없고 다른 나라와 방위 조약조차 맺지 않고 있으며, 아이슬랜드, 모나코 등 8개 나라는 군대를 갖고 있지 않는 반면 미국이나 프랑스 등과 방위 조약을 맺고 있다. 그리고 적어도 18개 이상의 속령 (屬領)은 그에 대한 통치권을 주장하는 나라와의 협약이나 국제 조약에 의해 어떠한 병력도 두지 않고 있다. 군대가 국가의 방위나 정체성 또는 사회 통제를 위해 없어서는 안될 것으로 간주하는 나라들에서는 군대의 폐지가 매우 놀랄만한 일일 것이다. 그러나 비록 군대를 가지고 있지 않은 나라들이 모두 약소국들이고 어떤 나라들은 방위를 동맹국에 의존하고 있을지라도, 그들은 분명히 군대가 없는 나라를 만들 수 있다는 가능성을 보여주고 있다.

국가인권위원회, [2010 인권대학], 1-14쪽.

2019/09/08

QUAKERS, THE ORIGINS OF THE PEACE TESTIMONY AND RESISTANCE TO WAR TAXES Ana m. Acosta

QUAKERS, THE ORIGINS  OF THE PEACE TESTIMONY AND RESISTANCE TO WAR TAXES


Ana m. Acosta


Whoever can reconcile this, “resist not evil,” with “resist violence by force,” again, “give also thy other cheek,” with “strike again”; also “Love thine enemies,” with “spoil them, make a prey of them, pursue them with fire and the sword,” or, “Pray for those that persecute you, and those that calumniate you,” with “Persecute them by fines, imprisonments and death itself,” whoever, i say, can find a means to reconcile these things may be supposed also to have found a way to reconcile god with the devil, Christ with Antichrist, Light with darkness, and good with evil. But if this be impossible, as indeed it is impossible, so will also the other be impossible, and men do but deceive both themselves and others, while they boldly adventure to establish such absurd and impossible things.
robert Barclay, 16781 

Introduction: Nonviolence and the Society of Friends 

robert Barclay’s words, quoted above, have been echoed by Quakers since the seventeenth century and can still be found in the books of discipline and faith published by the religious society of friends today. Barclay’s statement followed the spirit of a letter sent in January of 1661 which had been signed by george fox and many other prominent Quakers (fox et al. 1660). it was intended to reassure the recently restored monarch, Charles ii, of the harmlessness of the friends, as they called themselves. the declarations made in this letter were not intended to demonstrate a quiet acquiescence on matters of conscience; on the contrary, they were issued as a testimony to the fact that 
War and Peace: Essays on Religion, Violence and Space. Ed. Bryan S. Turner. London, UK.: Anthem, 2013.
102 WAr And PEACE
their battle and their weapons were spiritual, not “carnall.” After that date, many different Quaker preachers – women and men – elaborated, embellished and disseminated these core beliefs. in a letter of the previous year, 1660, margaret fell, one of the “mothers in israel” of the early Quaker movement, had given the king her own version of this doctrine. in her letter we read, “this wee declare, that it is our principle life and practice to live peaceably with all men, And not to act any thing against the king nor the Peace of the nation, by any plots, contrivances, insurrections, or carnall weapons to hurt or destroy either him or the nation thereby, but to be obedient unto all just and lawfull Commands” (glines 2003, 281 cited in dandelion 2007, 43). the Peace testimony, as it came to be known, resonates through the many extant diaries, testaments and pamphlets that Quakers have produced during their 350-year existence. in the contents of these statements we can determine the way in which the early Quakers endorsed a separation of matters of public rule and matters of individual conscience. the difficulty in the years between 1660 and 1689, however, centered primarily on the fact that individual conscience was still defined as a question of government, and the establishment of a unified church was regarded as a particularly desirable means to guarantee stability and order. the doctrine of nonviolence eventually became one of the fundamental tenets of Quaker belief; it was often preached and frequently written up as an appeal to the spirit in every person to be expressed with zeal, and with sufficient legal liberty to allow individuals to follow the dictates of their own conscience. Quakerism emerged in the middle of the seventeenth century as a popular movement where women figured prominently. it was without a doubt radical in its disregard of social and sexual hierarchies, and, in spite of the oft-made claim of noninterference in worldly matters, the early friends were as clearly preoccupied with questions of social justice as of individual salvation. they engaged, if the anachronism can be excused, in a form of civil disobedience that prompted them in spite of severe persecution to refrain from taking oaths, paying tithes and removing their hats in the presence of their betters. the period under discussion in this essay saw the Quaker movement become an organized denomination; this article seeks to explore the various forms this doctrine took before it became fully codified in the course of the eighteenth century. in contradiction to the now accepted orthodoxy that Quakers were defeated into quietism after the restoration, this chapter seeks further to demonstrate how the movement evolved to include refusing to pay taxes for war purposes. moreover, it asks whether taxation destined for military use presented early Quakers with the kind of ethical dilemmas we see it pose for Quakers in our own time. it explores whether Quakers’ reticence to pay tithes in the seventeenth century can be considered a precedent to resistance 
 thE Origins Of thE PEACE tEstimOny  103
towards paying war taxes from the eighteenth century onward, and equivalent to the form in which present-day friends have objected to paying war taxes.
Historians and the Quaker Peace Testimony much research was done in the years between the late 1950s and early 1980s in Britain on the radical religious sects – including the Quakers – that emerged in the middle decades of the seventeenth century, in particular the groundbreaking work of historians W. Alan Cole, Christopher hill and, more recently, Barry reay. this body of work changed the way in which the years of the civil wars and Commonwealth had been traditionally understood, but it was also deeply colored by its own historical specificity. Although most of this work remains exciting and inspiring, some of its fundamental tenets need to be reexamined.2 the tenet that concerns this article is these theorists’ evaluation of the Quaker Peace testimony. for these historians the Quaker Peace testimony came into being only after the restoration in 1660 as a reaction to the political defeat of the Commonwealth, and was, therefore, motivated by a kind of social and political self-defense. they share one key assumption – perhaps the most problematic one – that pacifism is politically passive.3 As a result, if pacifism was a survival strategy after the restoration, then Quakers became passive after that date too. Christopher hill unequivocally confirms this equation when he wistfully tells us: 
But treachery lurked in the inner light. in time of defeat, when the wave of revolution was ebbing, the inner voice became quietist, pacifist […] Once the group decided this way, all the pressures were in the direction of accepting modes of expression not too shocking to the society in which men had to live and earn their living. (hill 1991, 370) 
it is not unlikely that on some level the desire to appease the new monarch was one of the motivations for this doctrine; if this was the case, it didn’t work. Quakers were brutally persecuted in the years following the restoration even after their Peace testimony had been publicly declared. moreover, their passivity was anything but quiet: it did not prevent them from preaching, meeting, writing and holding fast to their unorthodox beliefs. it is true that the friends became organized and developed an administrative structure that encouraged uniformity, but, again, quietism and passivity don’t seem to be the right adjectives. hill in particular, has an unmistakable sympathy for antiestablishment views and tends to be wary of words such as organization, discipline and faith, all of them words that are central to Quakerism. two other aspects need to be reinscribed into our evaluation of the Peace testimony. first, 
104 WAr And PEACE
the religious motivations of the Peace testimony have been anachronistically downplayed; and, second, the concept of pacifism is also understood in this body of work from a modern perspective to the detriment of the ways it was experienced and understood in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.4 thus, the commonly accepted and oft-repeated dogma that Quakers lost their revolutionary fervor – and their soul even after the restoration (Braithwaite 1955, 521) – in a quietist and pacifist disappearance from the public sphere in the course of the eighteenth century needs to be reconsidered.5 here we will try to relocate pacifism in two contexts, in the seventeenth century and in our own time, before we can decide whether it is indeed quietist. some work on this account has already been undertaken and most likely will continue in the years to come.
Pacifists and Quakers on Pacifism from a different perspective, there is another significant body of scholarship on the Peace testimony. it shares with the scholarship mentioned above the tendency to downplay religion and to impose the specific concerns of its own historical moment. unlike the scholars mentioned above, however, this perspective regards Quaker pacifism not precisely as a form of defeatism but as the logical outcome of the progress towards liberal humanism. it places their pacifism in the midst of a global historical trend that includes such diverse movements as secular conscientious objectors during the two world wars in Europe, secular tolstoyans, and the beliefs of and movement inspired by gandhi. the historian Peter Brock is perhaps the most prolific and noteworthy proponent of this perspective. he writes from the standpoint of a non-Quaker conscientious objector briefly imprisoned during the second World War, who then served by performing alternative service. After the war Brock worked as a volunteer with Quaker relief in western germany and in Poland.6 in his work on Quaker pacifism and regarding hill’s, Cole’s and reay’s shared opinion that Quaker pacifism did not exist before 1660 and, therefore, was politically motivated, Brock has reservations. in order to address these reservations, he cites many cases of Quakers voicing objections to bearing arms both in Britain and the colonies during the 1650s, including george fox himself and other early pacifists such as William dewsbury (1990, 9–23). finally, and not surprisingly, the largest body of work comes from religious scholars, some but not all of whom are Quakers. Accordingly, in the early decades of the twentieth century we find the landmark work on the Peace testimony of margaret E. hirst. hirst’s work antecedes the work of the historians we have been discussing in this section, and it is feasibly to her work and that of geoffrey f. nuttall, that emphasize religious experience over 
 thE Origins Of thE PEACE tEstimOny  105
political and social factors, that hill especially was reacting.7 At any rate, hirst, like Brock, gives numerous examples of Quaker belief in pacifism before the restoration (1923, 55).8 
The Quaker Peace Testimony do you bear a faithful testimony against bearing arms or paying trophy money, or being in any way concerned in privateers Letters of marque, or in dealing in prize goods as such?
twelfth Query of the London yearly meeting 17589 
Early in his journal george fox, who in 1650 had been imprisoned in derby for blasphemy, had his first recorded opportunity to proclaim his newly held convictions about weapons and war. fox tells how while he was in prison some soldiers tried to recruit him out of jail for the militia to fight on the royalist side.
i told them i lived in the virtue of that life and power that took away the occasion of all wars, and i knew from whence all wars did rise, from the lust, according to James his doctrine. And still they courted me to accept of their offer, and thought i did but compliment with them, but i told them i was come into the covenant of peace, which was before wars and strifes was. (fox 1952, 65)
this was one of the two recorded instances before the restoration that attest to fox’s conversion to pacifism.10 the episode in derby in 1650 has marked the official point of departure for fox’s and Quaker’s pacifism generally even though there is an earlier episode narrated by William dewsbury in his diary, where he explains how he arrived at his own conviction regarding the sinfulness of war in 1645: 
[t]he word of the Lord came unto me and said, Put up thy sword into thy scabbard […] then i could no longer fight with a carnal weapon, against a carnal man, for the letter, which man in his carnal wisdom had called the gospel, and had deceived me; but then the Lord caused me to yield in obedience, to put up my carnal sword into the scabbard and to leave the Army. (Cited in hirst 1923, 43) 
there are other episodes such as these that delineate the process by which the early friends arrived at the Peace testimony, but it was primarily george 
106 WAr And PEACE
fox’s letter of 1661 to the king, mentioned above, that made these principles official. this letter became the basis of all future Quaker testimonies of peace. in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, as we have seen in fox’s and dewsbury’s cases, pacifism was understood primarily as a question of conscientious objection to bearing arms. Later on, especially in the nineteenth century, friends became more active in the political arena by stressing conflict resolution before war. As Britain did not have conscription until World War i, the question of participating in militias had been the main arena in which Quaker resistance to violence and their beliefs were tested. Over the years, however, the question of how to define pacifism and what being a pacifist entails has been discussed by many and has developed to include active engagement in resolving conflict. Accordingly Wolf mendl, in the 1974 swarthmore Lecture Prophets and Reconcilers; Reflections on the Quaker Peace Testimony, stressed that peace does not mean absence of conflict and concluded that “Our responsibility is to participate in it [conflict] constructively and not to abolish it” (99). for mendl, conflict is natural and therefore trying to imagine a world or even a person that is conflict-free is the wrong way to approach the question of the definition of pacifism. the three principal fields of action that mendl recognizes are: the development of institutions to create a world system based on nonviolent conflict resolution, the study of the causes of war and violence to deepen our understanding of conflict and how best to approach it, and the application of nonviolent techniques to existing conflict situations (1974). in our time, the Peace testimony has seen friends engage primarily in war relief. moreover, as conscription presently does not exist in either Britain or the united states, the matter of conscientious objection has shifted to the problem of taxation for war purposes, and it is to this issue that we turn our attention in the following section.
The Question of War Taxes margaret E. hirst tells us in her study of Quaker pacifism that from the start the question of taxation for war purposes was accepted in counter-distinction to conscription. she writes, “this distinction of taxation by the government and the exaction of direct military service has been accepted by most later friends” (1923, 73). hirst informs us of this acquiescence after discussing a journal entry about a poll tax that has been paid on behalf of both george and margaret fell fox and, further, a letter by george fox where he states: 
so in this thing, so doing, we can plead with Caesar and plead with them that hath our custom and hath our tribute if they seek to hinder us from our godly and peaceable life and then [if payment be not made] might 
 thE Origins Of thE PEACE tEstimOny  107
they say and plead against us, how can we defend you against foreign enemies and protect everyone in their estates and keep down thieves and murderers, that one man should not take another man’s estate from him? (Cited in hirst 1923, 78)
in her view, hirst follows the Quaker historian William Braithwaite’s assessment. in his magisterial work on early Quakerism Braithwaite includes an anecdote that provides an unambivalent endorsement of his position. he tells us that, in a conversation between thomas story and Peter the great of russia in 1697, story upheld the view that friends could pay taxes in the following words:
though we are prohibited arms and fighting in person, as inconsistent we think with the rules of the gospel of Christ, yet we can and do by his example readily and cheerfully pay unto every government, in every form, where we happen to be subjects, such sums and assessments as are required of us by the respective laws under which we live […] We, by so great an example, do freely pay our taxes to Caesar, who of right hath the direction and application of them, to the various ends of government, to peace or to war, as it pleaseth him or as need may be, according to the constitution or laws of his kingdom, and in which we as subjects have no direction or share: for it is Caesar’s part to rule in justice and in truth, but ours to be subject and mind our own business and not to meddle with his. (Braithwaite 1961, 601–2)
Of particular interest in story’s words is the conviction that subjects have no share or say in the way governments are run. it is an extreme application of Jesus’s separation between worldly and heavenly affairs, and it is hard when reading his words not to agree with Christopher hill’s view that the radical sects were not just defeated after the restoration, but that by the end of the century they had capitulated to a survivalist Realpolitik. On the other hand, during the 1690s and beyond, story, who had become an itinerant preacher and had traveled extensively in the American colonies and the West indies, was regularly preaching against slavery, demonstrating the incompatibility of Christian values with slave holding. Abolition would become one of the chief causes endorsed, and in some cases initiated, by Quakers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.11 thus, although the separation of heavenly and earthly realms accompanied by a doctrine of nonintervention in the latter is consistent, it wound up being very narrowly defined. if a specific governmental policy infringed in any way on questions of conscience it was no longer understood as a secular matter. in view of this fact, we find in george fox’s 
108 WAr And PEACE
works a consistent argument in favor of upholding governmental authorities if they perform their work justly.12 A just magistrate, for example, is divinely appointed to punish evildoers while a corrupt magistrate is an agent of the antichrist and a lawful target for disobedience. But how is the particular status of the magistrate evaluated? it is determined by the inner conviction and the individual conscience of the true believer. in light of this position towards what pertains to Caesar, it becomes very difficult to defend outright the standard view of Quaker disengagement with the world; particularly so in the American colonies where the legal disabilities under which dissenters lived in England throughout the eighteenth century did not apply. if, in England, dissenters were barred from holding office, Quakers in the colonies were solicited and actively served in government (Weddle 2001, 144–52). in fact, it can be further argued that in England the inability of Quakers to participate in the political arena allowed them to champion unpopular causes (abolition, education of slaves, prison reform, sexual equality and, much later, universal suffrage) using their by-then well-established reputation for uprightness and their not inconsiderable wealth. returning to the question of war and taxation, thomas story in 1711 held fast to his position on the matter in Pennsylvania, where he was a staunch defender of the traditional view on taxation. According to Brock, in order to put down the revolt by some local Quakers who refused to pay the tax levied to raise money for Queen Anne’s war efforts against the french, story invoked as precedent fox’s position on taxes – which he dutifully paid – during the Anglo–dutch Wars of the previous century, alleging that the responsibility for the war lay with the government of each country not with either English or dutch friends (Brock 1990, 186–7). in the American colonies the question of taxation for war seems to have been a more pressing issue and more frequently debated than in England. in America it was raised on numerous occasions throughout the eighteenth century. in England, on the other hand, it seems only to have become a hotly debated issue at the end of the century with the advent of the napoleonic Wars.13 greaves, however, presents us with some evidence of earlier Quaker objections to taxation for war. he states that as early as 1660 friends had discussed the question of paying taxes destined for war: “John Whitehead, William Ames, and eight other Quakers sent Charles and his Council an affirmation of their obedience to magistracy and their readiness to pay taxes but not to contribute toward warfare” (grieves 1992, 247).14 nevertheless, after this date, as we have seen, the question of withholding taxes seems to have been settled. it did not return until the middle of the eighteenth century in the American colonies with John Woolman and Anthony Benezet.15 it is important to point out that holding on to these beliefs had made it well-nigh impossible for friends to 
 thE Origins Of thE PEACE tEstimOny  109
reconcile bearing witness to their principles with the pressing and worldly issues of running a colony. “it was, in particular, the emphatic testimony against war and against slavery,” hirst tells us, “that had stripped the society of so many members, not a few among them friends of standing and influence” (1923, 194). the passing of the militia Bill in 1755 saw the Pennsylvania Quakers declare against war taxes (hirst 1923, 376–8). from that period the issue would continue to resurface through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and remains very much a pressing issue for friends today.
Quakers and the Question of War Taxes in the Last 40 Years since the Vietnam War, which was the last time the united states had a draft, the issue of conscientious objection to bearing arms in war has shifted from the issue of direct participation to the question of paying taxes destined for the military. many friends have expressed their belief that contributing to war either directly or indirectly is explicitly against god’s will. hence, the refusal to pay taxes that prolong and perpetuate war has been argued in courts on numerous occasions.16 the case of daniel taylor Jenkins was decided in 2007. in 2005, the tax Court had dismissed Jenkins’ case and Jenkins then presented an amended petition in which he claimed that the religious freedom restoration Act (rfrA) and the first and ninth Amendments of the united states Constitution afforded him a right to retain the unpaid portion of his taxes on the basis of religious objections to military spending until such taxes could be directed to nonmilitary expenditures. the tax Court had also imposed a penalty of $5,000 based on its conclusion that the petitioner’s arguments were frivolous within the meaning of the statute. during the appeal of this decision Circuit Judge José A. Cabranes elucidated the court’s conclusion in the following words: 
Although we do not doubt the sincerity of the petitioner’s religious convictions, we conclude that his legal arguments are without merit. it is well settled that the collection of tax revenues for expenditures that offend the religious beliefs of individual taxpayers does not violate the free Exercise Clause of the first Amendment. (Jenkins v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue Service 2007)
moreover, Judge Cabranes cited United States v. Lee as a precedent. in Lee the principal argument rested on the premise that it is in the best public interest to sustain a sound tax system and that, therefore, maintaining a well-functioning tax system takes precedence over individual religious belief. in conclusion, the final decision upheld the view that “religious belief in conflict with the 
110 WAr And PEACE
payment of taxes affords no basis for resisting the tax” (Jenkins v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue Service 2007; emphasis in original). the decisions in Jenkins’ case rested on the 1999 case of Adams v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue, where, in the court of appeals, Circuit Judge rendell affirmed the government’s case. the final argument adduced in Adams was the threat to the viability of the government’s proper function if objections to the ways in which taxes are distributed are allowed to prevail. On this point Judge rendell provided the following rationale: 
On matters religious, it [the tax Act] is neutral. if every citizen could refuse to pay all or part of his taxes because he disapproved of the government’s use of the money, on religious grounds, the ability of the government to function could be impaired or even destroyed […] there are few, if any governmental activities to which some person or group might not object on religious grounds. (Adams v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue Service 1999)
in the earlier case of friend rosa Covington Packard, the portion of the taxes she had refused to pay the internal revenue service had been placed in an escrow account, the Peace Escrow fund, established in 1991 by the Purchase new york Quarterly meeting of the religious society of friends, where the taxes withheld from the federal government and the corresponding interest on those taxes are held until the government should requisition the funds and allocate them to purposes not connected to the military.17 this was likewise the procedure taken by Jenkins with his taxes (new york yearly meeting 2010.). As we have seen thus far, the united states judiciary has not been sympathetic to the fact that friends have not literally reneged on their fiscal responsibilities but have “paid,” if not to the government directly, the full amount of their taxes. the judiciary has continued to see the situation as more or less a question of tax liability and evasion. Because the different courts with a few minor exceptions have not contemplated as a procedural possibility the establishment of a fund where taxes can be withheld and earmarked for governmental activities not related to the defense budget, the organization Conscience and Peace tax international has sponsored a bill in order to frame this issue as a legislative matter instead.18 On 17 march 2011, a bill called the religious freedom Peace tax fund Act of 2011 was introduced to the Committee on Ways and means.19 the purpose of the bill is: 
to affirm the religious freedom of taxpayers who are conscientiously opposed to participation in war, to provide that the income, estate, or gift tax payments of such taxpayers be used for nonmilitary purposes, to create 
 the Origins Of the Peace testimOny  111
the religious freedom Peace tax fund to receive such tax payments, to improve revenue collection, and for other purposes. (conscience and Peace tax international n.d.) 
the bill highlights the need for consistency by extending the law to cover questions of taxation given that federal law recognizes conscientious objection to participation in war in any form based upon moral, ethical or religious beliefs with provision for alternative service, but does not provide “for taxpayers who are conscientious objectors and who are compelled to participate in war through the payment of taxes to support military activities” (h. r. 1191). in fall 2011, the new york Quarterly meeting posted on its webpage the statement of conscience of David Bassett of the farmington-scipio regional meeting.20 in his statement Bassett declares that, 
[s]ince the Vietnam War era, i and my wife have been conscientiously opposed to paying military taxes. While the Us government recognizes sincere conscientious objection to military service, it continues to require its citizens to pay for war, through federal taxes. this, in conscience,  i cannot do. thus i must (as my wife and i have done since 1970) act against the law (i.e., engage in nonviolent civil disobedience) by not voluntarily paying that portion of my (our) federal taxes which pays for the nation’s current military expenses. Our government continues each year to extract those moneys, plus penalty and interest from our financial accounts, in this way denying our freedom of religious expression. (“farmington-scipio”)
this statement of conscience presented to the meeting and recorded in its minutes is a clear example of the ways in which friends today continue to express their sufferings. it is not just individuals who have objected to paying war taxes. Quaker organizations have also supported individual friends’ refusals to pay taxes destined for military purposes. therefore, on the new york yearly meeting’s webpage we find that this organization refused to pay the federal telephone tax imposed to help finance the Vietnam War. furthermore, in most if not all of the books of discipline and faith published for the use of their members, Quaker organizations have fully endorsed the belief in nonviolence and the need to resist the imperatives of war.21 in Britain, the religious society of friends issued the following statement regarding the gulf War:
since its beginnings in the seventeenth century, [Quakerism has] borne witness against war and armed conflict as contrary to the spirit and 
112 WAr And PEACE
teachings of Christ. We have sought to build institutions and relationships which make for peace and to resist military activity. the horrific nature of modern armaments makes our witness particularly urgent. the gulf War involved the substantial use of expensive modern weapons and technology, demonstrating that today it is the conscription of our money rather than our bodies which makes war possible. (yearly meeting of the religious society of friends (Quakers) in Britain. 24.20.)
this same organization, the London yearly meeting, describes its own legal proceedings to redress the grievance posed by the question of war taxes.
in march 1982 meeting for sufferings considered the request by some London yearly meeting employees that the part of their income tax attributable to military purposes should be diverted to non-military uses. tax was withheld from October 1982 until, in June 1985, the Appeal Court ruled that the action was unlawful. meeting for sufferings then decided to pay the tax withheld since the law had been tested as far as possible. At the same time it made a submission to the European Commission of human rights on the grounds of the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; in July 1986 the Commission ruled the case inadmissible. (yearly meeting of the religious society of friends (Quakers) in Britain. 24.19.) 
Some Conclusions Peter Brock tells us that the Quaker Peace testimony was the result of a “proto-democratic revolution.” he affirms that friends became some of the most “stubborn upholders of the freeborn Englishman’s rights, whether at home or across the Atlantic. When a man’s religion forbids him to bear arms, so [Quakers] argued, the state infringes his liberties requiring him to pay a ‘tax’ or perform some alternative service in exchange for permission to follow conscience, since to follow conscience without impediment is a free man’s inalienable right” (1972, 477). this argument, as we have seen above, has been appealed to frequently with some degree of success. friends have been successful as regards conscription, but have failed repeatedly regarding taxation. the right of free Exercise guaranteed by the first Amendment has been invoked numerous times in tax cases in the last 40 years with little success. When the religious freedom restoration Act (rfrA) was passed in 1993, many friends felt a new way of arguing their case had been given them. this has also not come to pass. in fact, the rfrA has made no difference in the way their cases have been decided. 
 thE Origins Of thE PEACE tEstimOny  113
in the past, Quakers had on occasion accepted the paying of “mixed” taxes, meaning taxes devoted to all areas of government, but had refused to pay taxes explicitly destined to the military. in many of the recent cases, friends have paid a part of their taxes and withheld that portion they have estimated to be destined by the government to war activities. the courts have dismissed this strategy and imposed penalties. these penalties are dutifully recorded by the Quaker organizations in their books of sufferings. Books like these have been kept by every Quaker meeting since the seventeenth century. But we know that the early Quakers, while conscientious objectors to bearing arms, did not object to paying taxes. taxes became an issue only in the eighteenth century in the American colonies. to offer a historical counter to hirst’s observation that, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, it was the rigor and difficulty of holding fast to the Peace testimony and the Quakers’ objections to paying taxes that saw their numbers dwindle, in the middle of the twentieth century it was precisely these two fundamental tenets that attracted many new members (heron 1995, 45 cited in Ceadel 2002, 25). Admittedly, their numbers again declined in Britain and the united states after World War ii. the question of taxation is central to the friends’ testimony and will not begin to be resolved until a court rules in their favor. this kind of antiwar activism may not have the revolutionary fervor that the early Quakers displayed during the turbulent decades in the middle of the seventeenth century in England, but it makes evident an unwavering commitment to a religious principle that, in principle, could have a considerable impact on how the American Constitution is interpreted. taxation is without any doubt one of the most charged subjects in American politics and it is not surprising that since the eighteenth century this has been one of the focal points of Quaker activism. What is more, Quaker pacifism, with its principles of bearing witness and civil disobedience as methods of registering opposition, has had a vital and influential second life in the West since the 1950s, within the context of the Cold War and afterwards. Quaker protests against nuclear development and weapons testing in the 1950s (primarily by the united states, Britain and the soviet union) evolved in the 1970s into the worldwide environmental movements we have today. Bearing witness, simply put, consists of recording moral or ethical opposition or disapproval by calling attention to an event through a person’s presence. this method of protest was employed by Albert Bigelow in 1958. Bigelow, a Quaker, sailed in a boat called the Golden Rule to the Eniwetok and Bikini atolls in the marshall islands where the united states had planned a series of nuclear bomb detonations. in a letter to then-president dwight Eisenhower, the friends Committee for non-Violent Action Against 
114 WAr And PEACE
nuclear Weapons, of which Bigelow was a member, stated its intention to protest and bear witness against planned nuclear tests in the Pacific: “four of us, with the support of many others, plan to sail a small vessel into the designated area in the Pacific by April 1st. We intend, come what may, to remain there during the test period, in an effort to halt what we feel is a monstrous delinquency of our government in continuing actions which threaten the wellbeing of all men” (quoted in Bigelow 1959, 42). the Golden Rule never arrived at its destination and Bigelow and the other three crewmen were arrested and jailed in honolulu. notwithstanding, the voyage of the Golden Rule inspired various similar protest ventures, including the voyage of the Phoenix, a later Quaker attempt (hunter 1979, 8; Zelko 2004, 201–2). the most famous and the most enduring imitator of Bigelow and the Golden Rule has been Greenpeace. the Greenpeace sailed from Vancouver, British Columbia, to protest nuclear tests in Amchitka in the Aleutian islands in 1971. unlike the Golden Rule, the crew of the Greenpeace included several members of the Canadian media: robert hunter, a journalist with the Sun, Ben metcalfe with the CBC and irving stowe with the Georgia Straight (hunter 1979, 10). As hunter succinctly expresses it: “Whereas the Quakers had been content to try to ‘bear witness,’ Greenpeace would try to make everybody bear witness – through news dispatches, voice reports, press releases, columns, and, of course, photographs” (hunter 1979, 10; Brown and may 1991, 14; Weyler 2004, 104). the Amchitka campaign was ultimately successful, primarily because it appropriated and reinvented the act of bearing witness as an effective strategy not just for greenpeace, but for many environmental organizations since. there were many Quaker connections at the beginning of the movement: the Palo Alto and Oregon American friends service Committee provided some of the funding for the expedition, and four of the movement’s founders – irving and dorothy stowe and Jim and marie Bohlen – were active Quaker pacifists. greenpeace still references the Quakers on its webpage today: “the Quakers are a religious movement founded by the English, non-conformist, itinerate preacher george fox in the 17th Century. A Quaker protest inspired the first greenpeace voyage and the Quaker philosophy of ‘Bearing Witness,’ a form of non-violent resistance whereby someone protests simply by being at an objectionable scene, was adopted by greenpeace” (greenpeace, “the Quakers”). the continuing recourse to Quaker practice can be seen in Greenpeace Witness, a recent coffee-table book published by the organization that collects photographs documenting most of its campaigns to date as a powerful testimony of the effectiveness of bearing witness. interestingly, this media-driven form of bearing witness has also limited greenpeace’s choice of which environmental issues to address.22 nevertheless, greenpeace now counts more than 6 million members worldwide and has an annual budget of 
 thE Origins Of thE PEACE tEstimOny  115
over 200 million dollars (greenpeace 2011, 46). Arguably, this is the medium where Quaker pacifism has had its greatest and most enduring influence. due to its huge membership and considerable funds, greenpeace has of necessity become more organized and also more corporate. since the early 1990s, greenpeace has added a science unit, a media unit, a lawyer, a political unit and a specialist actions unit (rose 1993, 289). for some, greenpeace may have lost its freshness and subversive appeal, its revolutionary fervor, as Christopher hill deemed the Quakers had done following the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, on similar grounds (1991, 370). What i hope to have laid out in this article is that establishing a movement’s successes and its capacity to effect change is not an all or nothing proposition and cannot be judged without taking into account its myriad incarnations over time. 
Notes 1 Apology for the True Christian Divinity (1765), 491 2 Weddle (2001, 245–53) engages in a detailed assessment of the shortcomings of this position in the context of Quakers in the American colonies, specifically during king Philip’s War. she rightly concludes that these historians’ evaluation of Quakerism as passive is too categorical, and overgeneralizes in a way that fails to account for the myriad individual and group experiences of friends both in Britain and its colonies before and after the restoration (252–3). 3 for a reevaluation that expressly refutes the position of these historians on several grounds, see greaves (1992, 237–59). 4 hugh Barbour is a good example of a historian who has addressed this particular tendency. in his 1964 study he tells us that in the years of fierce persecution after the restoration many Puritans, now more properly called dissenters, urged each other to be meek and resist hating their persecutors. this was not the case with friends, he explains, who “wrote fiery tracts and letters to and about their tormentors and made persecution a contest, and a means for growth in power.” (210) for Barbour, dissenting was not about quiet resistance to oppression, since oppression was a sign of the Antichrist and clearly a target for the “Lamb’s War” – the war of the godly against the ungodly. therefore, the choice for Quakers was either persecution or conversion (210–13). 5 there is no doubt that in its beginnings the movement was far more socially and politically subversive and radical. But quietism and conservatism seem to gloss over too many complex issues. Another historian who has questioned this assessment is Phyllis mack, who finds this polarization between radical and conservative simplistic. mack regards the way in which the society of friends developed in the 1660s and 1670s as a complex synthesis between radical ideas and the practical need to codify the movement in order to guarantee its survival (mack 1992, 273–80). 6 Brock’s Pacifism in Europe to 1914 (1972) and The Quaker Peace Testimony 1660 to 1914 (1990) are his two most pertinent books on the subject of Quaker pacifism. interestingly, The Quaker Peace Testimony 1660 to 1914 is the primary source used by friends to give a historical overview in their amicus curiae for the case of Packard v. the United States (discussed later in this chapter). 7 nuttall was not a Quaker but a Congregational minister.
116 WAr And PEACE
 8 in this category we find the more recent works of horace g. Alexander (1982) and Wolf mendl (1974). hirst’s study remains the most comprehensive of these. 9 hirst (1923, 195). 10 it could be argued – and it has been – that it is probable fox used pacifism as an excuse to refuse to serve on the royalist side since his loyalties lay with the parliamentarians, but in his defense it can be countered that he also refused to serve during the Commonwealth as well, as can be documented in a 1657 letter to Oliver Cromwell. 11 Anthony Benezet (1718–84) is a good example of a Quaker abolitionist. he became an educator and devoted considerable energy to emancipation and abolition. At his death he willed his estate to support the education of African Americans and indians (gerona). it is worth mentioning that not all Quakers at the time were averse to slave holding. the issue was hotly debated and by the end of the eighteenth century the belief in slavery as immoral and inconsistent with Christian belief became official. 12 “One of Quakerism’s foundation principles,” greaves tells us, “deals with this issue in deceptively simple terms: ‘Obedience and subjection in the Lord belongs to superiors […]; but where rulers, Parents or masters or any other commandeth or requireth subjection in any thing which is contrary to god, or not according to him, in such causes all people are free, and ought to obey god rather than man’” (1992, 246). the words are Edward Burrough’s (1660, 5). 13 this point is also made in henry J. Cadbury’s additional notes to Braithwaite’s history. 14 greaves cites from a document in the Library of the religious society of friends: spence mss, vol. 3, nos. 4, 100, 107. 15 John Woolman, in a manner that characterizes the Quaker belief in following individual conscience, tellingly voices his discomfort with paying taxes in these words: “i was told that friends in England frequently paid taxes, when the money was applied to such purposes. i had conferences with several noted friends on the subject, who all favoured the payment of such taxes, some of whom i preferred before myself, and this made me easier for a time. yet there was in the deeps of my mind a scruple which i never could get over, and at certain times was greatly distressed on that account. i all along perceived that there were some uprighthearted men, who paid such taxes, but could not see that their example was a sufficient reason for me to do so” (cited in mendl 1974, 16). 16 Listed here are the most relevant cases involving friends and the payment of taxes devoted to the war effort; they are listed in order from the oldest to the most recent (i am grateful to gerald neuman for helping me to track down these cases, and to Elizabeth Wang for advice on proper documentation practices): (i) supreme Court of the united states. united states v. American friends service Committee et al. no. 73–1791. 29 October 1974. (ii) united states Court of Appeals, sixth Circuit. Bruce and ruth k. grAVEs, Petitioners-Appellants, v. Commissioner of internal revenue, respondent-Appellee. no. 77–1188. submitted 6 July 1978. decided 7 July 1978.  (iii) united states Court of Appeals, sixth Circuit. dr. marjorie E. nELsOn, PlaintiffAppellant, united states of America, internal revenue service, defendant-Appellee. no. 85–3724. Argued 5 June 1986. decided 15 July 1986. (iv) united states Court of Appeals, second Circuit. gordon m. BrOWnE and Edith C. Browne, PlaintiffsAppellants, v. united states of America dba internal revenue service, defendantAppellee. no. 98–6124. Argued 26 february 1999. decided 14 may 1999. (v) united states Court of Appeals, third Circuit. Priscilla m. Lippincott AdAms, Appellant v. Commissioner of internal revenue. no. 98–7200. Argued 14 January 1999. decided 
 thE Origins Of thE PEACE tEstimOny  117
4 march 1999. (vi) united states Court of Appeals, second Circuit. rosa Covington PACkArd, Petitioner- Appellant, v. united states respondent-Appellee. 1997. (vii) united states Court of Appeals, second Circuit. daniel taylor JEnkins, PetitionerAppellant, v. Commissioner of internal revenue service, respondent-Appellee. docket no. 05–4756-ag. Argued: 22 february 2007. decided: 6 march 2007. 17 “the total amount of delinquent tax for the two years involved in this case [Packard] was about $7,950, while the penalties assessed and then seized totaled about $1,465, approximately another 18%. the penalty amounts which the petitioner sought to recover by this refund action had been collected from her by levy, along with the principal amount of taxes due. the irs deemed them delinquent, because in obedience to her Quaker religious conscience, she had refused to pay. instead of making payment to the internal revenue service, however, she had placed the full amounts due in an escrow account managed by her Quarterly meeting of the religious society of friends, in trust for the united states, as her letters disclosed” (Packard). 18 in United States v. American Friends Service Committee (1974), in which the supreme Court decided against this friends organization on questions of taxation, the one dissenting opinion came from supreme Court Justice William O. douglas, a strong advocate of first Amendment rights, who “stated that the first Amendment’s free exercise clause permits no exceptions” (cited in sagafi-nejad 2011, 101). Otherwise the courts in their decisions have been remarkably consistent. 19 this bill is sponsored by representative John Lewis, democrat of georgia (for himself, Jesse Jackson Jr of illinois, raul grijalva of Arizona, Lynn Woolsey of California, Pete stark also of California and rush holt of new Jersey). they are all democrats with liberal records. 20 i am grateful to nancy Black for directing me to david Bassett’s testimony. 21 “resistance to the war system is vital. We support the testimony of those who have refused to pay war taxes. the world’s governmental investment in the technology of war dwarfs any similar investment in the technology of peace. We also continue to work for disarmament, and to root out the seeds of war in unjust economic and social practices. Building a peace system calls for us to educate ourselves and others and to be part of efforts to demonstrate the effectiveness of the technology of peace” (new york yearly meeting 2001, 51–2). 22 in his analysis of the different challenges facing the maturing organization Chris rose (1990), program director for greenpeace uk, observes that media success and media opportunities have also begun to limit the organization’s involvement with less photogenic issues as well as estranging it from less glamorous grassroots activism. As a response to this self-identified problem, greenpeace has added to its strategy of bearing witness different approaches, including exposés and investigations into environmental wrongdoing as well as work on enforcing solutions to identified problems such as ozone depletion and household appliances (rose 1990, 292).
References Alexander, horace g. 1982 [1939]. The Growth of the Peace Testimony of the Religious Society of Friends

The Quaker Peace Testimony, 1660 to 1941 (review)



Project MUSE - <i>The Quaker Peace Testimony, 1660 to 1941</i> (review)

The Quaker Peace Testimony, 1660 to 1941 (review)
Jean R. Soderlund
Quaker History
Friends Historical Association
Volume 80, Number 2, Fall 1991
p. 108
10.1353/qkh.1991.0002
REVIEW
View Citation
Additional Information
In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:

Book Reviews Edited by Thomas D. Hamm 


The Quaker Peace Testimony, 1660 to 1941. 


By Peter Brock. York, Eng.: Sessions , 1991. viii + 387 pp. Notes, bibliographical postscripts, and index. Cloth, $40.00; paper, $19.95. U.S. distribution by Syracuse University Press. 






Peter Brock offers in this volume an exploration of the Quaker peace testimony from the beginnings of the Society of Friends in civil war England to 1914. His survey is based largely, though not entirely, on secondary sources; primary sources include tracts written by William Penn, John Bellers, and Jonathan Dymond, and nineteenth-century Quaker journals. The book ranges widely, incorporating discussions of the Quaker peace witness in France, Prussia, Norway, and Australia as well as focusing on the development of pacifism in Great Britain and North America. Brock seeks the genesis of Quaker pacifism in the 1650s and concludes, like other scholars, that before 1660 Friends held widely divergent views on the question of taking up arms. Among the earliest adherents to Quakerism were many soldiers and sailors of the Commonwealth: while some believed their new faith mandated conscientious objection, others kept their military positions. From a twentieth-century perspective even George Fox seems inconsistent during these years, as he personally adopted nonviolence but urged the Commonwealth to wage war against Catholicism. In the years after 1660, Friends developed a peace testimony that assumed orthodoxy by the nineteenth century. For over a century, Brock shows, Friends in Great Britain and North America (and Quaker-ruled Pennsylvania in particular) confronted the question of what constituted the just use of force. After 1800, Quakers everywhere were a very small sect. Under many flags they maintained a firm commitment to the absolutist position and exerted an influence, far beyond that which their numbers would warrant, upon governmental policies on the military draft. Nineteenth-century Quaker meetings required members to refuse military service of all sorts, including noncombatant alternatives, and forbade the hiring of substitutes or payment of fines. Young male Friends who failed to live up to this standard could be disowned. Mennonite churches, in contrast, permitted members to assume noncombatant duties. On the other hand, Friends generally approved payment of "mixed" taxes, that is, those designated for both military and nonmilitary purposes. Thus, Brock outlines the development of a coherent Quaker peace testimony, but he also makes clear that there was never unanimity among Friends about its meaning. He surveys the complexity of the evolution of Quaker pacifism and raises important questions for future research. For example, no one has yet studied the identity of the large number of Friends who chose to fight in the American Revolution or to measure the impact on the Society of the loss of these members. As Brock suggests, pacifism went farthest of all Quaker beliefs in distinguishing Friends who adhered to the peace testimony from members of other Protestant denominations . More intensive research is required before we can understand adequately how this commitment to pacifism shaped the Society's growth. University of Maryland, Baltimore CountyJean R. Soderlund ...