2020/04/25
South Korea is a model for combatting COVID-19, it should now take the lead in diplomacy with North Korea
Responsible Statecraft
South Korea is a model for combatting COVID-19, it should now take the lead in diplomacy with North Korea
APRIL 22, 2020
Written by
Kee B. Park
Christine Ahn
For the first time in two months, South Korea’s new coronavirus cases have dropped to single digits. Seoul has not only demonstrated that it can contain the pandemic, but that it can safely hold elections, which last week led to a landslide victory for President Moon Jae-in’s party in the parliamentary elections. Having earned the trust of the South Korean public and the admiration of the global community, now is the time for Moon to claim leadership over another issue that the Trump administration has woefully mismanaged: relations with North Korea.
The Trump administration’s approach to North Korea has been characterized by the president developing a personal relationship with Kim Jong Un, while imposing ever-stricter sanctions and continuing to hold joint military exercises with South Korea. This has failed to move the needle on North Korea’s nuclear weapons arsenal. Pyongyang continues to test weapons — even in the midst of a global pandemic — and shows no signs of wanting to engage with Washington.
But the universal threat of the coronavirus has created a vastly different landscape for President Moon to make progress with North Korea. Moon has all the leverage he needs to resolve a 70-year-old conflict and create a model for peace and stability in Northeast Asia.
From the beginning of his presidency, Moon — a human rights lawyer and former soldier who served in the DMZ — has made more headway than past South Korean leaders in improving inter-Korean relations. Five months after signing the Panmunjom Declaration in April 2018, Moon and Kim met in Pyongyang for a second summit and signed an inter-Korean military agreement that set forth a demilitarization process, including disarming soldiers in the Joint Security Area and demining portions of the DMZ. South Korea took concrete steps to revive inter-Korean cooperation, such as establishing a diplomatic compound in Kaesong and seeking to link the inter-Korean railroad at Dorasan Station at the DMZ.
Unfortunately, Moon’s pro-peace diplomacy with North Korea fell victim to Washington’s “maximum pressure” campaign on North Korea. In an October 2018 call to South Korean Foreign Minister Kang Kyung-Hwa, Secretary of State Mike Pompeo rebuked Seoul for moving too fast with Pyongyang and failing to move in lock step with Washington on denuclearization. When asked about South Korea’s possible lifting of sanctions on North Korea, President Trump told reporters, “They won’t do that without our approval. They do nothing without our approval.”
Since Trump’s colossal failure to reach a deal with Kim in Hanoi last year, talks have frozen, not just between Washington and Pyongyang, but also between the two Koreas. Not only does Moon now have a clear mandate domestically, the global context has changed, paving the way for him to pursue his inter-Korean peace agenda, with or without Washington’s approval.
For one, South Korea doesn’t have to continue conducting military exercises with the United States, which has been the ire of the North Korean regime. On March 23, U.N. Secretary-General António Guterres called for a global ceasefire so that the world can address the pandemic. President Macron of France is pressing for the U.N. Security Council to back the Secretary-General’s call, securing the commitments of three of five permanent members: China, the United Kingdom and the United States. The American and South Korean militaries agreed to cancel this spring’s military exercises due to the pandemic; adhering to the global ceasefire gives President Moon cover to cancel them altogether.
In addition to the global ceasefire, there is growing consensus that sanctions must be lifted against particularly vulnerable countries such as North Korea. Michelle Bachelet, U.N. human rights chief and a physician, recently called for sectoral sanctions to “be eased or suspended” because they impede the delivery of vital medical and humanitarian aid. “In a context of global pandemic,” Bachelet explained, “impeding medical efforts in one country heightens the risk for all of us.”
With more than 2 million cases and nearly 150,000 deaths worldwide caused by COVID-19, the United States is acquiescing. On April 16, the U.S. Treasury Department announced sanctions exemptions for humanitarian assistance to North Korea, including “testing kits, respiratory devices, personal protective equipment, and medicine used in the prevention, diagnosis, treatment and recovery from COVID-19.”
With two years left in his presidency — and the U.S. and North Korea now entering the 70th year of being locked in a technical state of war — Moon should take this opportunity to advance peace on the Korean Peninsula. The brokenness of the U.S. approach in resolving the North Korean conflict begs for leadership, which President Moon must claim for the future of regional and worldwide security.
After all, if there is one key lesson to be taken away from the handling of the COVID-19 pandemic, it’s that South Korea can do some things better — much better — than the United States.
Written by
Kee B. Park
Christine Ahn
[단독]“태영호, 580만달러 통치자금 갖고 탈북”
[단독]“태영호, 580만달러 통치자금 갖고 탈북”
흔들리는 북한, 탈북 도미노?
[단독] “태영호, 580만달러 통치자금 갖고 탈북”
입력 2016.08.18
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송용창 기자
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영국 주재 북한대사관 태용호 공사가 가족들과 한국에 입국했다고 통일부가 17일 밝혔다. 사진은 지난해 11월 영국 도미니온 사우스홀에서 열린 10월 혁명 98주년 기념식에서 태 공사가 노래를 부르는 모습. 뉴시스
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영국 주재 북한 대사관의 태영호 공사가 김정은 북한 국무위원장의 통치자금 수백만 달러를 가지고 탈북한 것으로 전해졌다.
북한 사정을 잘 아는 대북 소식통은 18일 “태 공사가 주영 북한 대사관에서 선전 업무 뿐만 아니라 재무까지 담당했다”며 “대사관이 관리하던 580만 달러(64억여원)의 거액을 갖고 탈북한 것으로 안다”고 말했다. 북한의 해외 공관은 외화벌이 창구 역할을 하는데다, 런던에 위치한 북한 대사관은 사치품 공급 역할도 맡고 있어 거액의 통치자금을 다룬 것으로 알려졌다. 태 공사는 주영 북한 대사관에서 현학봉 대사에 이은 서열 2위로 선전 및 사상 교육을 비롯해 자금 관리 업무까지 총괄했던 것으로 알려졌다.
태 공사가 거액을 갖고 탈북함에 따라 북한 당국도 발칵 뒤집힌 것으로 전해졌다. 이에 따라 북한은 태 공사가 국가정보원의 공작에 의해 공금을 빼돌린 것이라며 강력 반발할 것으로 예상된다.
한편, 지난 7월 러시아에서 제3국으로 망명한 것으로 알려진 북한 대사관의 김성철 3등 서기관도 가족과 함께 한국에 입국한 것으로 전해졌다. 러시아 언론들은 당시 김 서기관이 유럽 국가로 망명하기 위해 벨라루스로 출국했다고 보도했으나 그가 한국행을 선택했다는 것이다.
북한은 해외 근무자들의 탈북이 잇따르자 통제와 감시 강화를 위해 해외 각지에 검열단을 급파한 것으로 알려졌다. 해외 기관에 배치된 보위부 요원 등이 해외 근무자들의 사상 동향을 점검하고 전화 통화 내역까지 체크하는 등 단속에 열을 올리고 있다는 것이다. 북한 당국은 또 해외 근무자들의 가족 탈북을 막기 위해 해외에 함께 나간 가족들에 대한 소환령도 내리는 것으로 전해졌다. 태 공사가 자녀 교육 및 진로를 위해 탈북을 감행했을 가능성이 높은 상황에서 유사 사례를 막기 위해 자녀 단속에도 나선 것으로 풀이된다.
송용창 기자 hermeet@hankookilbo.com
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영국 주재 북한 대사관의 태영호 공사가 김정은 북한 국무위원장의 통치자금 수백만 달러를 가지고 탈북한 것으로 전해졌다.
북한 사정을 잘 아는 대북 소식통은 18일 “태 공사가 주영 북한 대사관에서 선전 업무 뿐만 아니라 재무까지 담당했다”며 “대사관이 관리하던 580만 달러(64억여원)의 거액을 갖고 탈북한 것으로 안다”고 말했다. 북한의 해외 공관은 외화벌이 창구 역할을 하는데다, 런던에 위치한 북한 대사관은 사치품 공급 역할도 맡고 있어 거액의 통치자금을 다룬 것으로 알려졌다. 태 공사는 주영 북한 대사관에서 현학봉 대사에 이은 서열 2위로 선전 및 사상 교육을 비롯해 자금 관리 업무까지 총괄했던 것으로 알려졌다.
태 공사가 거액을 갖고 탈북함에 따라 북한 당국도 발칵 뒤집힌 것으로 전해졌다. 이에 따라 북한은 태 공사가 국가정보원의 공작에 의해 공금을 빼돌린 것이라며 강력 반발할 것으로 예상된다.
한편, 지난 7월 러시아에서 제3국으로 망명한 것으로 알려진 북한 대사관의 김성철 3등 서기관도 가족과 함께 한국에 입국한 것으로 전해졌다. 러시아 언론들은 당시 김 서기관이 유럽 국가로 망명하기 위해 벨라루스로 출국했다고 보도했으나 그가 한국행을 선택했다는 것이다.
북한은 해외 근무자들의 탈북이 잇따르자 통제와 감시 강화를 위해 해외 각지에 검열단을 급파한 것으로 알려졌다. 해외 기관에 배치된 보위부 요원 등이 해외 근무자들의 사상 동향을 점검하고 전화 통화 내역까지 체크하는 등 단속에 열을 올리고 있다는 것이다. 북한 당국은 또 해외 근무자들의 가족 탈북을 막기 위해 해외에 함께 나간 가족들에 대한 소환령도 내리는 것으로 전해졌다. 태 공사가 자녀 교육 및 진로를 위해 탈북을 감행했을 가능성이 높은 상황에서 유사 사례를 막기 위해 자녀 단속에도 나선 것으로 풀이된다.
송용창 기자 hermeet@hankookilbo.com
회복적 경찰활동
(7) Facebook
박성용
4 hrs ·
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동료 김복기 선생이 자신이 본래하던 재능을 코로나 덕분(?)에 진가를 발휘하고 있다. 이 양반의 페북 내용을 싶은 것은 바로 시기적 적절상과 시급성에 대한 주목때문이다.
이미 지난 주에 “회복적사법 시민사회 네트워크”에서 활동중인 5개 단체가 작년에 15개 경찰서의 시법사업을 금년에 130곳으로(본래 기대는 60곳정도가 우리측의 기대였으나 경찰청의 요구로 바뀌고 바뀌어 130곳으로 바뀌었는데 또 요청하는 곳이 증가되고 있다) 일단 시작을 하게 된다. 기존의 경찰업무를 혁신적으로 그 패러다임을 바꾸는 것이 회복적 경찰활동이다. 과거에 대한 기억을 갖고 있는 대부분의 이쪽영역의 활동가들은 민중의 지팡이가 아니라 민중의 몽둥이라는 경험이 있었는데, “제복을 입은 시민”으로서 대화와 경청, 당시자 상호연결, 관계의 구축, 공동체의 회복이라는 대민업무의 변화라는 지각변동이 경찰청의 새로운 좌표로서 제시된 것이다. 아마도 이것의 분출구는 촛불혁명의 영향이라 볼 수 있을 것같다.
손상, 범죄, 폭력을 다루는 공공기관이 바뀌는 것은 쉬운 일이 아니다. 시민사회에서 개인의 한신과 창조적 소수의 노력이 놀랄만한 결과를 가져오는 일이 아동복지, 환경, 평화 등의 영역에서 일어나는 것을 봤지만 공공영역, 특히 국가기관이 바뀌는 데는 개인이 아닌 공동의 에토스가 필요하다. 그중에 제일 어려운 지점중의 하나는 시민사회에서 쓰는 언어와 핸정기관이 쓰는 언어가 다르다는 점이다. ‘국가의 일’ ‘국민의 안전’ ‘공식적인(official) 사업’ ‘전략적 기획’ ‘효율성의 답보’ ‘신뢰할만한 증거’ ‘논증된 자료’’상사의 지식사항’’책임의 한도’ 등의 말뒤로 개인이 숨어서 개인으로는 욕구가 있어도 실질적인 변화를 모색하지 않은채로 형식적인 사업이 예산에 의해 일년단위로 끝나고 만다는 것이다.
나는 이게 전에는 시민사회 활동가로서 왜 이렇게 답답하게 일하는가라고 비판적인 시각도 많았는데, 요즈음은 시각이 좀 바뀌었다. 그들의 언어를 모르니까 나의 독잭과 그들의 독백이 부딪치고 연결이 안되는 것이 있었던 것이다. 회복적 경찰활동이 본격적으로 잘 시행되려면 제복을 입은 시민이든 평상복을 입은 시민이든, 사회적 현상과 그 이슈에 대한 열정, 문제의식의 집중화, 분석과 대안의 모색, 최선의 대안에 대한 의견수렴과 조직적인 결정, 비전을 향한 피드백과 현실화의 끔임없는 프로세스가 필요하다. 단순히 비난과 저항으로 기존담론을 안티-담론으로 바뀌게 할 수 없다 오히려 자신의 입장을 더욱 견고하게 구축할 뿐이다.
경찰청의 회복적 경찰활동이든 작년 8월 초 교육청의 관계조정기구의 출범이라는 새로운 학폭법의 시행이든 뭔가를 활동하려면 공공영역의 언어, 문법 그리고 행동방식을 배우고 익혀서 커뮤니케이션이 일어나지 않고는 예산할당에 따른 일시적인 ‘전략적 동반자’의 상태로 서로의 필요를 충족하고 해어지는 일이 반복되는 것이다. 이참에 한 사람이 여러 중요한 논문과 책들을 찾아 놓았으니 ‘활동’만 아니라 공공영역에 가지고 들어갈 수 있는 ‘언어’와 ‘문법’ 그리고 ‘성찰’을 함께 배우는 일들이 활동가들에게 적극 권고한다.
‘성찰에 기초하지 않은 활동’은 주류화하지 못하고 다시 변방으로 언제나 밀려날 가능성이 농후하다. 이는 이미 서구세계에서 개별 경찰서에서 여러차례 도입하고도 아직도 상징적인 활동으로만 남아있는 이유이기도 하다. 그나마 잔존하는 곳은 바로 커뮤니티안에 그에 관련한 활동가들의 맥이 이어지고 있기 때문이다.
창조적 소수가 자신의 직관과 사심없는 노력의 공간을 만들면, 그 공간을 열고 흐름을 만들어내는 것은 동료들의 몫이자 소명일 수 있다. 격려하고 물방울을 보태어 물결이 되도록 시도해보는 것은 중요한 변혁운동일 수 있을 것이다. 경찰업무를 보니까 그 사회의 가장 많은 사회구성원의 활동에 직접관여되는 일들이 굉장히 많다는 것을 알게 되었다. 이러한 공공영역의 종사자들이 각종 사건 당사자들을 ‘이방인’이나 ‘괴물’로 보지 않고 자신의 절실한 필요를 요청하는 자들로 이해와 연민의 눈으로 다가가게 한다는 것은 ‘따스한 사회’를 만들어내는 중요한 전환점에 우리가 서 있게 된다고 나는 확신한다.
이제 공공영역들이 양심적이고 헌신적이며 자발적인 시민의 거버넌스(협치)에 손을 내밀고 있다. 향후 직접 민주주의 실현을 위해 좀더 ‘공부하는 분위기’가 일어나기를. 회복적 사법 활동가들은 이미 현장의 경험들을 풍성히 가지고 있고 그에 대한 진행수완을 갖추고 있다. 여기에 조금만 더 필요한 것은 자신이 다가가고자 하는 공공영역의 ‘언어’와 ‘문법’의 옷을 입어보는 일이다. 초기 2-3년을 그렇게 노력하지 않으면 활동가, 전문가, 실무자가 따로 놀면서 나중에는 페이퍼를 다루는 학자들의 회복적 사법 유물들 뒤적거리기로 끝날수도 있다는 염려때문에 김복기 선생의 작업을 주목하며 함께 주목해 주기를 바라는 마음에서 격려의 글을 쓴다.
Anabaptist Kim-Park
Yesterday at 10:14 ·
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지난 12월부터 정리하기 시작했던 회복적 정의/회복적 사법 관련 논문을 다시 꺼내보았다. 그 결과 시중에서 구매할 수 있는 책은 제외하고, 논문과 컨퍼런스 책자의 수는 총 273개였다. 이 논문은 “회복적 정의”와 “회복적 사법”이라는 키워드 중심으로 찾은 것이라 아마도 이보다 훨씬 많은 논문이 있을 것이다.
회복적 정의에 관심이 있고, 실제로 회복적 서클을 진행하면서 배움의 여정이 계속되겠지만, 솔직히 찾아놓은 논문을 하나하나 읽어가는 일도 만만치는 않다. 그럼에도 불구하고 페북에 글을 공유하는 것은 이렇게 귀한 자료가 있음에도 아주 일부 학자나 연구자들 외에 찾아 읽는 사람이 그리 많지 않다는 것과 있어도 학문적인 연구와 현장이 다르다는 고정관념 때문에 소개조차 되지 않고 있다는 안타까움 때문이다. 그동안 회복적 정의와 관련하여 페북에 아홉 차례 글을 썼는데, 그 중 하나가 강원지방경찰청에서 시행했던 “With You” 프로그램에 대한 소개였다.
이 프로그램은 김문귀, 경찰에 의한 회복적 사법의 실천사례와 의의 – 강원지방경찰청의 ‘너와함께 (With You) 프로그램, 법학연구 제23권 제4호, 2015.10, 23-48이라는 논문에 자세히 소개 되었다. 요약정리는 회복적 정의의 다섯 번째 시리즈 글로 실었다.
코로나 바이러스로 긴 방학을 맞고 있다. 학교도 개학을 하지 못하고, 온라인으로 강의 중이다. 이미 시작되었어야 할 회복적 경찰활동도 한 달이나 늦게 시작하였다. 개인적으로 나는 이 기간 동안 밀린 책 번역과, 새 단장을 하고 나온 책 몇 권을 다시 만났다. 이제 2주 더 연장된 사회적 거리두기 시간을 보내며 정리해야할 일들이 점점 늘어나는 느낌이라, 적잖이 긴장하고 있다.
아마도 사회적 거리두기가 풀리면 가장 먼저 다가올 것이 그동안 화상회의를 통해 준비한 ‘회복적 경찰활동’이 될 것이고, 여기저기 밀린 강의 및 연수 요청이 다음이 될 것이다. 아닌게 아니라 여기저기서 교육에 대한 문의 전화가 걸려오기 시작한다. 이런 저런 것 다 생략하고, 부디 코로나 바이러스가 어서 종식되길 기대한다.
이제 얼마 후 진행될 회복적 경찰활동을 미리 들여다보면서, 마음의 준비만 아니라, 실제적인 준비도 해야겠다.
이런 맥락에서 전국에서 회복적 경찰활동을 진행할 선생님들/활동가들을 위해 뭘 하면 좋을까 생각하다가, 묻어둔 회복적 정의/회복적 사법 관련 논문 중 경찰활동에 관련된 논문을 소개하면 좋겠다는 생각이 들었다.
들여다보니 회복적 경찰활동과 관련된 논문이 33개나 된다. 시간이 나는 대로 하나씩 살펴보기로 하고, 오늘은 우선 논문목록만 공유하고자 한다. 앞으로 몇 회가 될지는 모르겠지만, 다음의 논문을 하나하나 읽어가며, 활동가들과 공유하고 싶다. 진행방법은 발표연도별로 정리한 다음의 논문을 역순으로 살펴보려한다. 다만 호서대학교 법경찰행정학과의 김문귀 교수님의 최근 글은 포괄적이기보다는 구체적인 주제여서, 총 다섯 편의 논문을 쓰셨기에 한꺼번에 묶어서 시간을 두고 살펴보고자 한다.
코로나로 움츠려 들었던 가슴도 펴고, 힘껏 기지개를 펴고, 다가오는 코로나 바이러스 이후의 시대를 살아보자. 힘차게, 평화로.
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13. 김혁, 회복적 사법의 이념 규현을 위한 경찰의 경미소년사건처리, 경찰학연구 11(1), 2011, 61-86.
14. 강소영, 학교폭력의 원인 및 대책에 관한 질적 연구 - 근거이론으로 접근한 경찰의 대응방안을 중심으로, 한국범죄심리학회 2012 춘계학술대회 발표집, 2012.06, 75~99.
15. 강욱, 정석진, 학교폭력에 대한 경찰의 대응방안: 회복적 (restorative) 정의와 응보적(retributive) 정의의 관점에서, 범죄학회 학술대회, 2012, 101-112.
16. 김성중, 김주찬, 회복적 사법 실천모델에 관한 연구, 경찰단계 소년범죄를 중심으로, 경찰학연구 13(2), 2013, 51-77.
17. 강동욱, 소년범에 대한 경찰단계의 다이버전 활성화 방안, 법학연구 제16집 제1호, 2013.03, 87-114.
18. 강 욱, 이주락, 정석진, 학교폭력에 대한 경찰의 대응방안: 회복적 정의와 응보적 정의의
관점에서, 한국범죄학 제7권2호, 2013.12. 35-56.
19. 이동진, 조준하, 효율적 고소사건 처리를 위한 경찰의 회복적 사법, 경찰학논총,
10:1, 2015, 505-530.
20. 김문귀, 소년 범죄에 대한 경찰에서의 회복적 사법의 실천방안 및 해결과제, 한국치안행정논집, 12(2), 1-22.
21. 김지연, 소년범죄자에 대한 경찰의 선도조건부 훈방제 도입방안 연구, 한국민간경비학회보 제6호, 2005.10.01., 279~308.
22. 이동진, 조준하, 효율적 고소사건 처리를 위한 경찰의 회복적 사법, 경찰학논총 제10권 제1호, 2015, 505-530.
23. 김문귀, 경찰에 의한 회복적 사법의 실천사례와 의의 – 강원지방경찰청의 ‘너와함께 (With You) 프로그램, 법학연구 제23권 제4호, 2015.10, 23-48.
24. 김문귀, 소년범죄에 대한 경찰에서의 회복적 사법의 실천방안 및 해결과제, 한국치안행정논집, 12:2, 2015, 1-22.
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27. 황태정, 김혜정, 회복적 사법 이념의 경찰단계 구현방안, 피해자학연구 제24권 제3호, 2016.12. 225-245.
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2020/04/24
Blood-clotting complication is killing coronavirus patients, doctors say - The Washington Post
Blood-clotting complication is killing coronavirus patients, doctors say - The Washington Post
A mysterious blood-clotting complication is killing coronavirus patients
Once thought a relatively straightforward respiratory virus, covid-19 is proving to be much more frightening
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By
Ariana Eunjung Cha
April 23, 2020 at 6:09 a.m. GMT+9:30
Craig Coopersmith was up early that morning as usual and typed his daily inquiry into his phone. “Good morning, Team Covid,” he wrote, asking for updates from the ICU team leaders working across 10 hospitals in the Emory University health system in Atlanta.
One doctor replied that one of his patients had a strange blood problem. Despite being put on anticoagulants, the patient was still developing clots. A second said she’d seen something similar. And a third. Soon, every person on the text chat had reported the same thing.
“That’s when we knew we had a huge problem,” said Coopersmith, a critical-care surgeon. As he checked with his counterparts at other medical centers, he became increasingly alarmed: “It was in as many as 20, 30 or 40 percent of their patients.”
One month ago when the country went into lockdown to prepare for the first wave of coronavirus cases, many doctors felt confident they knew what they were dealing with. Based on early reports, covid-19 appeared to be a standard variety respiratory virus, albeit a contagious and lethal one with no vaccine and no treatment. They’ve since seen how covid-19 attacks not only the lungs, but also the kidneys, heart, intestines, liver and brain.
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Keith Mortman produced a 3-D model of the lungs of a patient with covid-19. (Jayne Orenstein/The Washington Post)
Increasingly, doctors also are reporting bizarre, unsettling cases that don’t seem to follow any of the textbooks they’ve trained on. They describe patients with startlingly low oxygen levels — so low that they would normally be unconscious or near death — talking and swiping on their phones. Asymptomatic pregnant women suddenly in cardiac arrest. Patients who by all conventional measures seem to have mild disease deteriorating within minutes and dying at home.
With no clear patterns in terms of age or chronic conditions, some scientists hypothesize that at least some of these abnormalities may be explained by severe changes in patients’ blood.
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The concern is so acute some doctor groups have raised the controversial possibility of giving preventive blood thinners to everyone with covid-19 — even those well enough to endure their illness at home.
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Blood clots, in which the red liquid turns gel-like, appear to be the opposite of what occurs in Ebola, Dengue, Lassa and other hemorrhagic fevers that lead to uncontrolled bleeding. But they actually are part of the same phenomenon — and can have similarly devastating consequences.
Autopsies have shown some people’s lungs fill with hundreds of microclots. Errant blood clots of a larger size can break off and travel to the brain or heart, causing a stroke or heart attack. On Saturday, Broadway actor Nick Cordero, 41, had his right leg amputated after being infected with the novel coronavirus and suffering from clots that blocked blood from getting to his toes.
Lewis Kaplan, a University of Pennsylvania physician and head of the Society of Critical Care Medicine, said every year doctors treat people with clotting complications, from those with cancer to victims of severe trauma, “and they don’t clot like this.”
“The problem we are having is that while we understand that there is a clot, we don’t yet understand why there is a clot,” Kaplan said. “We don’t know. And therefore, we are scared.”
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‘It crept up on us’
The first sign something was going haywire was in legs, which were turning blue and swelling. Even patients on blood thinners in the ICU were developing clots — which is not unusual in one or two patients in one unit but is for so many at the same time. Next came the clogging of the dialysis machines, which filter impurities in blood when kidneys are failing and jammed several times a day.
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“There was a universal understanding that this was different,” Coopersmith said.
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Then came the autopsies. When they opened up some deceased patients’ lungs, they expected to find evidence of pneumonia and damage to the tiny air sacs that exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and the bloodstream. Instead, they found tiny clots all over.
Zoom meetings were convened in some of the largest medical centers nationwide. Tufts. Yale-New Haven. The University of Pennsylvania. Brigham and Women’s. Columbia-Presbyterian. Theories were shared. Treatments debated.
Although there was no consensus on the biology of why this was happening and what could be done about it, many came to believe the clots might be responsible for a significant share of U.S. deaths from covid-19 — possibly explaining why so many people are dying at home.
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Nurses describe their fears working on the front lines | Voices from the Pandemic
The Post asked five nurses across the U.S. to describe what life is like working on the front lines of the coronavirus pandemic. (Drea Cornejo/The Washington Post)
In hindsight, there were hints blood problems had been an issue in China and Italy as well, but it was more of a footnote in studies and on information-sharing calls that had focused on the disease’s destruction of the lungs.
“It crept up on us. We weren’t hearing a tremendous amount about this internationally,” said Greg Piazza, a cardiovascular specialist at Brigham and Women’s who has begun a study of bleeding complications of covid-19.
Helen W. Boucher, an infectious-disease specialist at Tufts Medical Center, said there’s no reason to think anything is different about the virus in the United States. More likely, she said, the problem was more obvious to American doctors because of the unique demographics of U.S. patients, including large percentages with heart disease and obesity that make them more vulnerable to the ravages of blood clots. She also noted small but important differences in the monitoring and treatment of patients in ICUs in this country that would make clots easier to detect.
“Part of this is by virtue of the fact that we have such incredible intensive care facilities,” she said.
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A leading cause of death
The body’s cardiovascular system often is described as a network of one-way streets that connect the heart to other organs. Blood is the transport system, responsible for moving nutrients to the cells and waste away from them. A common cold or a cut on the finger can lead to changes that help repair the damage, but when the body undergoes a more significant trauma, the blood can overreact, leading to an imbalance that can cause excessive clots or bleeding — and sometimes both.
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Scientists call this “hemostatic derangement.” In math, a derangement is a permutation in which no element is in its original position.
Harlan Krumholz, a cardiac specialist at the Yale-New Haven Hospital Center, said no one knows whether blood complications are a result of a direct assault on blood vessels, or a hyperactive inflammatory response to the virus by the patient’s immune system.
“One of the theories is that once the body is so engaged in a fight against an invader, the body starts consuming the clotting factors, which can result in either blood clots or bleeding. In Ebola, the balance was more toward bleeding. In covid-19, it’s more blood clots,” he said.
A study published in JAMA on Wednesday found that a large number of covid-19 patients admitted to New York State’s largest health system came in with blood test readings that indicated clotting problems.
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And a Dutch study published April 10 in the journal Thrombosis Research provided more evidence the issue is widespread, finding 38 percent of 184 covid-19 patients in an intensive care unit had blood that clotted abnormally. The researchers called it “a conservative estimation” because many of the patients were still hospitalized and at risk of further complications.
Early data from China on a sample of 183 patients showed more than 70 percent of patients who died of covid-19 had small clots develop throughout their bloodstream.Although acute respiratory distress syndrome still appears to be the leading cause of death in covid-19 patients, blood complications are not far behind, said Behnood Bikdeli, a fourth-year fellow at Columbia University Irving Medical Center, who helped anchor a paper about the blood clots in the Journal of The American College of Cardiology.
“My guess is it’s one of the top three causes of demise and deterioration in covid-19 patients,” he said.
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That recognition is prompting many hospitals to change the way they think about the disease and manage it. When the novel coronavirus first hit, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and others put people with asthma at the top of their lists of those who might be the most vulnerable. But European researchers writing in the journal Lancet noted it was “striking” how underrepresented asthma patients had been. Earlier this month, when New York state released data about the top chronic health problems of those who died of covid-19, asthma was not among them. Instead, they were almost all cardiovascular conditions.
Some medical centers have begun giving all hospitalized covid-19 patients small doses of blood thinners as preventive measures, and many are adjusting doses upward for the most seriously ill. The challenge is the more you give, the greater the danger of upsetting the balance in the other direction and having the patient bleed to death.
Another big mystery the doctors hope the blood issue will shed light on is why some maternity patients are collapsing during or after giving birth.
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A paper published in the American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology MFM in late March detailed how two women with no prior symptoms of covid-19 ended up in intensive care. The first was a 38-year-old patient of New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center in Manhattan who spiked a fever of 101.3 while undergoing a C-section delivery and began bleeding profusely. The second woman, 33, also underwent a C-section but the next day developed a cough that progressed to respiratory distress. Her heart beat irregularly and her blood pressure jumped to as high as 200/90.
Several physician-researchers said the relationship between covid-19, clotting and pregnant women is “an area of interest.” Women in childbirth can experience clotting and bleeding complications because of the involvement of the blood-rich placenta, but it’s possible covid-19 may be triggering additional cases by making some women’s bodies “lose balance.”
“There’s lots of speculation,” Krumholz said. “That’s one of the frustrating things about this virus. We’re in a lot of darkness still.”
2020/04/21
Why Christian missionaries struggled in Australia - ANU
Australia Migrant Indigeneous Identity Scrapbook: Why Christian missionaries struggled in Australia - ANU
Why Christian missionaries struggled in Australia
기독교 선교 - 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전
기독교 선교 - 위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전
둘러보기로 가기검색하러 가기
기독교 선교
위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전.
기독교 선교 (Christian mission)는 기독교를 전파하기 위한 조직된 사명이다.[1] 선교적 사명은 선교사로서 개인과 단체로 보내는데, 국경을 넘고, 지형적 경계를 넘어서 기독교로 개종을 목적으로 혹은 하나의 기독교 교파에서 다른 기독교 교파로 바꾸는 사역으로 활동하는 것이다. 이것을 전도라고 한다. 예수 그리스도의 전파를 그의 명령에 따라서 그의 제자들과 특별히 사도 바울과 같은 사람들은 일생을 헌신하였다.
기독교 선교의 역사[편집]
초기 선교는 예수 그리스도의대사명(위임명)과 사도들의 흩어짐이 예루살렘을 중심으로 활동이 시작되었다.
중세[편집]
개신교의 선교[편집]
미국에서 조나단 에드워즈와 같은 사람들은 인디언들에게 전도를 하였다.
중국[편집]
각주[편집]
- ↑ “Mission”. 《Encyclopædia Britannica》. 2013년 1월 8일에 확인함.
- ↑ Roy, Olivier (2010). 《Holy Ignorance》. New York: Columbia University Press. 48–56쪽. ISBN 978-0-231-70126-6.
- ↑ Walls, Andrew F. (November 2016). “Eschatology and the Western Missionary Movement”. 《Studies in World Christianity》 (영어) 22 (3): 182–200. doi:10.3366/swc.2016.0155.
추가 읽기[편집]
- Anderson, Gerald H., (ed.) Biographical dictionary of Christian missions, Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1998
- Arles, Siga. Theological Education for the Mission of the Church in India: 1947 - 1987, New York: Peter Lang, 1992.
- Bainbridge, William F. Around the World Tour of Christian Missions: A Universal Survey (1882) 583 pages; full text online
- Barnes, Jonathan S. Power and Partnership: A History of the Protestant Mission Movement (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2013)
- Barrett, David, ed. World Christian Encyclopedia, Oxford University Press, 1982
- Best, Jeremy. "Godly, International, and Independent: German Protestant Missionary Loyalties before World War I." Central European History (2014) 47#3 pp: 585–611.
- Bevans, Stephen B. A Century of Catholic Mission (2013) excerpt; wide-ranging survey focused on 20th century worldwide
- The Catholic Encyclopedia, (1913( online
- Cnattingius, Hans. Bishops and societies: A study of Anglican colonial and missionary expansion, 1698–1850 (1952)
- Dries, Angelyn. The missionary movement in American Catholic history (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1998)
- Endres, David J. American Crusade: Catholic Youth in the World Mission Movement from World War I Through Vatican II (2010)
- Etherington, Norman, ed. Missions and Empire (Oxford History of the British Empire Companion Series) (2008)
- Fitzpatrick-Behrens, Susan. The Maryknoll Catholic Mission in Peru, 1943–1989: Transnational Faith and Transformation (2012)
- Gailey, Charles R. and Howard Culbertson. Discovering Missions, Beacon Hill Press of Kansas City, 2007
- Glazier, Michael and Monika K. Hellwig, eds., The Modern Catholic Encyclopedia, Liturgical Press, 2004
- Glover, Robert H. The Progress of World-Wide Missions, rev. by J. Herbert Kane., Harper and Row, 1960
- Graham, Gael. Gender, culture, and Christianity: American Protestant mission schools in China, 1880–1930 (P. Lang, 1995)
- Herzog, Johann Jakob, Philip Schaff, and Albert Hauck. The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, 12 volumes, Funk and Wagnalls Company, 1910–11
- Hollinger, David A. Protestants Abroad: How Missionaries Tried to Change the World but Changed America (2017) excerpt
- Huntley, Martha. Caring, growing, changing: a history of the Protestant mission in Korea (Friendship Press, 1984)
- Hutchison, William R. (1993). 《Errand to the World: American Protestant Thought and Foreign Missions》. University of Chicago Press.
- Kane, J. Herbert. A Concise History of the Christian World Mission, Baker, 1982
- Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A History of the Expansion of Christianity, 7 volumes, (1938–45), the most detailed scholarly history
- MacCulloch, Diarmaid. Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years (2009)
- Moreau, A. Scott, David Burnett, Charles Edward van Engen and Harold A. Netland. Evangelical Dictionary of World Missions, Baker Book House Company, 2000
- Neill, Stephen. A History of Christian Missions. Penguin Books, 1986
- Newcomb, Harvey. A Cyclopedia of Missions: Containing a Comprehensive View of Missionary Operations Throughout the World : with Geographical Descriptions, and Accounts of the Social, Moral, and Religious Condition of the People (1860) 792 pages complete text online
- Pocock, Michael, Gailyn Van Rheenen, Douglas McConnell. The Changing Face of World Missions: Engaging Contemporary Issues And Trends (2005); 391 pages
- Ragsdale, John P. Protestant mission education in Zambia, 1880–1954 (Susquehanna University Press, 1986)
- Robert, Dana L. Christian Mission: How Christianity Became a World Religion (2009), 226pp; short survey
- Stanley, Brian. The Bible and the Flag: Protestant Mission and British Imperialism in the 19th and 20th Centuries (1990)
- Stanley, Brian. The Global Diffusion of Evangelicalism: The Age of Billy Graham and John Stott (2013)
- Tejirian, Eleanor H., and Reeva Spector Simon, eds. Conflict, Conquest, and Conversion: Two Thousand Years of Christian Missions in the Middle East (Columbia University Press; 2012) 280 pages; focus on the 19th and 20th centuries.
- Tyrrell, Ian. Reforming the World: The Creation of America's Moral Empire (2010) excerpt and text search
- Tucker, Ruth. From Jerusalem to Irian Jaya:From Jerusalem to Irian Jaya: A Biographical History of Christian Missions (2nd ed. 2004) excerpt and text search
- Yates, Timothy. The Conversion of the Maori: Years of Religious and Social Change, 1814–1842 (2013)
- Županov, Ines G. (2005). 《Missionary Tropics: The Catholic Frontier in India (16th–17th centuries)》. University of Michigan. ISBN 0-472-11490-5.
- Journal Social Sciences and Missions (Leiden: Brill), 1995–...
- Gailey and Culbertson. Discovering Missions by ISBN 0-8341-2257-X
- Johnstone Operation World ISBN 1-85078-357-8
- Moreau, Corwin and McGree. Introducing World Missions ISBN 0-8010-2648-2
- Olson, C. Gordon. What in the World is God Doing? Global Gospel Publishers, 2003
- Parker, J. Fred. Mission to the World. Nazarene Publishing House, 1988
- Van Rheenen Missions by ISBN 0-310-20809-2
- Winter and Hawthorne, eds. Perspectives on the World Christian Movement ISBN 0-87808-289-1
- "Vindicated by time – The Niyogi Committee Report On Christian Missionary Activities in Madhya Pradesh (India)"
- "History of Hindu – Christian Encounters 304 AD to 1996" By Sita Ram Goel, Publisher:Voice of India, New Delhi
- Shourie, A. (1994). Missionaries in India: Continuities, changes, dilemmas. New Delhi: ASA Publications.
- Missionary Conquest: The Gospel and Native American Cultural Genocide by George E. Tinker ISBN 978-0-8006-2576-4
- The Missionaries: God Against the Indians by Norman Lewis ISBN 0-14-013175-2
- The Dark Side of Christian History by Helen Ellerbe ISBN 0-9644873-4-9
- Goel, S. R. (1996). History of Hindu-Christian encounters, AD 304 to 1996. ISBN 8185990352
- Repression of Buddhism in Sri Lanka by the Portuguese (1505–1658) by Senaka Weeraratna
- Rajiv Malhotra: How Evangelists Invented 'Dravidian Christianity'
- Peter Rohrbacher: Völkerkunde und Afrikanistik für den Papst. Missionsexperten und der Vatikan 1922–1939 in: Römische Historische Mitteilungen 54 (2012), 583–610.
외부 링크[편집]
- Faith2Share, missions network
- Missionary Organizations, missionary organizations directory
- Missiology.org, resources on missions (Christian) education.
- LFM. Social sciences & missions (academic journal)
Christian mission - Wikipedia
Christian mission - Wikipedia
Christian mission
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A Christian mission is an organized effort to spread Christianity to new converts.[1] Missions involve sending individuals and groups, called missionaries, across boundaries, most commonly geographical boundaries, to carry on evangelism or other activities, such as educational or hospital work.[2] Sometimes individuals are sent and are called missionaries. When groups are sent, they are often called mission teams and they do mission trips. There are a few different kinds of mission trips: short-term, long-term, relational and those that simply help people in need. Some people choose to dedicate their whole lives to mission. Missionaries have the authority to preach the Christian faith (and sometimes to administer sacraments), and provide humanitarian aid. Christian doctrines (such as the "Doctrine of Love" professed by many missions) permit the provision of aid without requiring religious conversion.
Contents
History of Christian missions[edit]
Main article: Timeline of Christian missions
The earliest Christian mission, then, the Great Commission and Dispersion of the Apostles, was active within Second Temple Judaism. Whether a Jewish proselytism existed or not that would have served as a model for the early Christians is unclear, see Circumcision controversy in early Christianity#Jewish background for details. Soon, the expansion of the Christian mission beyond Judaism to those who were not Jewish became a contested issue, notably at the Council of Jerusalem. The Apostle Paul was an early proponent of this expansion, and contextualized the Christian message for the Greek and Roman cultures, allowing it to reach beyond its Hebrew and Jewish roots.
From Late Antiquity onward, much missionary activity was carried out by members of religious orders. Monasteries followed disciplines and supported missions, libraries, and practical research, all of which were perceived as works to reduce human misery and suffering and glorify the Christian God. For example, Nestorian communities evangelized parts of Central Asia, as well as Tibet, China, and India.[3] Cistercians evangelized much of Northern Europe, as well as developing most of European agriculture's classic techniques. St Patrick evangelized many in Ireland. St David was active in Wales.
During the Middle Ages, Ramon Llull (c. 1232 – c. 1315) advanced the concept of preaching to Muslims and converting them to Christianity by means of non-violent argument.[4] A vision for large-scale mission to Muslims would die with him, not to be revived until the 19th Century.
Additional events can be found at the timeline of Christian missions.
Medieval[edit]
During the Middle Ages Christian monasteries and missionaries such as Saint Patrick, and Adalbert of Prague propagated learning and religion beyond the boundaries of the old Roman Empire. In the seventh century Gregory the Great sent missionaries, including Augustine of Canterbury, into England. The Hiberno-Scottish mission began in 563.
In the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries, Franciscans such as William of Rubruck, John of Montecorvino, and Giovanni ed' Magnolia were sent as missionaries to the Near and Far East. Their travels took them as far as China in an attempt to convert the advancing Mongols, especially the Great Khans of the Mongol Empire. (Also see Medieval Roman Catholic Missions in China.)
Catholic missions after 1492[edit]
Main article: Catholic missions
One of the main goals of the Christopher Columbus expedition financed by Queen Isabella of Spain was to spread Christianity. During the Age of Discovery, Spain and Portugal established many missions in their American and Asian colonies. The most active orders were the Jesuits, Augustinians, Franciscans and Dominicans. The Portuguese sent missions into Africa. These are some of the most well-known missions in history. While some of these missions were associated with imperialism and oppression, others (notably Matteo Ricci's Jesuit mission to China) were relatively peaceful and focused inculturation rather than cultural imperialism.
In both Portugal and Spain, religion was an integral part of the state and evangelization was seen as having both secular and spiritual benefits. Wherever these powers attempted to expand their territories or influence, missionaries would soon follow. By the Treaty of Tordesillas, the two powers divided the world between them into exclusive spheres of influence, trade and colonization. The proselytization of Asia became linked to Portuguese colonial policy.
Portuguese trade with Asia rapidly proved profitable from 1499 onwards, and as Jesuits arrived in India around 1540, the colonial government in Goa supported the mission with incentives for baptized Christians. Later, the Church sent Jesuits to China (1552 onwards) and to other countries in Asia.[5][6]
Protestant missions[edit]
The Reformation unfolded in Europe in the early 16th century. For over a hundred years, occupied by their struggle with the Catholic Church, the early Protestant churches as a body were not strongly focused on missions to "heathen" lands.[7] Instead, the focus was initially more on Christian lands in the hope to spread the Protestant faith, identifying the papacy with the Antichrist.[8]
In the centuries that followed, Protestant churches began sending out missionaries in increasing numbers, spreading the proclamation of the Christian message to previously unreached people. In North America, missionaries to the Native Americans included Jonathan Edwards (1703–1758), the well-known preacher of the Great Awakening (ca 1731–1755), who in his later years retired from the very public life of his early career. He became a missionary to the Housatonic Native Americans (1751) and a staunch advocate for them against cultural imperialism.[8]
As European culture has been established in the midst of indigenous peoples, the cultural distance between Christians of differing cultures has been difficult to overcome. One[clarification needed] early solution was the creation of segregated "praying towns" of Christian natives. This pattern of grudging acceptance of converts[clarification needed] played out again later in Hawaii when missionaries from that same[which?] New England culture went there. In the course of the Spanish colonization of the Americas, the Catholic missionaries learned the languages of the Amerindians and devised writing systems for them. Then they preached to indigenous people in those languages (Quechua, Guarani, Nahuatl) instead of Spanish, to keep Indians away from "sinful" whites. An extreme case of segregation occurred in the Guarani Reductions, a theocratic semi-independent region established by the Jesuits in the region of the future Paraguay between the early 17th century and 1767.
From 1732 onwards the Moravian Church began sending out missionaries.
Around 1780, an indigent Baptist cobbler named William Carey began reading about James Cook's travels voyages in Polynesia. His interest grew to a furious sort of "backwards homesickness", inspiring him to obtain Baptist orders, and eventually to write his famous 1792 pamphlet, "An Enquiry into the Obligation of Christians to use Means for the Conversion of Heathen". Far from a dry book of theology, Carey's work used the best available geographic and ethnographic data to map and count the number of people who had never heard the Gospel. It inspired a movement that has grown with increasing speed from his day to the present.[citation needed]
In the United States, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) was chartered in 1812.
Protestant missionaries from the Anglican and Lutheran and Presbyterian traditions starting arriving in what was then the Ottoman Empire in the first half of the 19th Century. This eventually let to the creation of what are today the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Jordan and the Holy Land and the see of the Anglican Bishop in Jerusalem.[9] Furthermore, it was during this time that the Christian and Missionary Alliance started their missionary activity in Jerusalem.[10]
American "Hard-shell Baptists", "Anti-Mission Baptists", or "Old School Baptists" adhering to strict Calvinism rejected all mission boards, Bible tract societies, and temperance societies as nonbiblical. The mainstream of the Baptist denomination, however, supported missionary work.
Thomas Coke, (1747–1814) the first bishop of the American Methodists, was "the Father of Methodist Missions". After spending time in the newly formed United States of America strengthening the infant Methodist Church alongside Episcopal colleague Francis Asbury, the British-born Coke left for mission work. During his time in America, Coke worked vigorously to increase Methodist support of Christian missions and of raising up mission workers. Coke died while on a mission trip to India, but his legacy among Methodists – his passion for missions – continues.
China[edit]
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Open_Air_Preaching_WB.jpg/200px-Open_Air_Preaching_WB.jpg)
Missionary preaching in China using The Wordless Book
A wave of missions, starting in the early 1850s, targeted inland areas, led by Hudson Taylor (1832–1905) with his China Inland Mission (1865– ). Taylor was later supported by Henry Grattan Guinness (1835–1910) who founded (1883) Cliff College, which continues as of 2014 to train and equip for local and global mission.
The missions inspired by Taylor and Guinness have collectively been called[by whom?] "faith missions" and owe much to the ideas and example of Anthony Norris Groves (1795–1853). Taylor, a thorough-going nativist, offended the missionaries of his era by wearing Chinese clothing and speaking Chinese at home. His books, speaking, and examples led to the formation of numerous inland missions and of the Student Volunteer Movement (SVM, founded in 1886), which from 1850 to about 1950 sent nearly 10,000 missionaries to inland areas, often at great personal sacrifice. Many early SVM missionaries traveling to areas with endemic tropical diseases left with their belongings packed in a coffin, aware that 80% of them would die within two years.
British Empire[edit]
In the 18th century, and even more so in the 19th century, missionaries based in Britain saw the Empire as a fertile field for proselytizing for Christianity. All the main denominations were involved, including the Church of England, the Presbyterians of Scotland, and the Nonconformists. Much of the enthusiasm emerged from the Evangelical revival. Within the Church of England, the Church Mission Society (CMS) originated in 1799[11] and went on to undertake activity all around the world, including in what became known as "the Middle East".[12][13]
Before the American Revolution, Anglican and Methodist missionaries were active in the 13 Colonies. The Methodists, led by George Whitefield (1714-1770), were the most successful and after the revolution and entirely distinct American Methodist denomination emerged that became the largest Protestant denomination in the new United States.[14] A major problem for colonial officials was the demand of the Church of England to set up an American bishop; this was strongly opposed by most of the Americans had never happened. Increasingly colonial officials took a neutral position on religious matters, even in those colonies such as Virginia where the Church of England was officially established, but in practice controlled by laymen in the local vestries. After the Americans broke free, British officials decided to enhance the power and wealth of the Church of England in all the settler colonies, especially British North America (Canada).[15]
Missionary societies funded their own operations that were not supervised or directed by the Colonial Office. Tensions emerged between the missionaries and the colonial officials. The latter feared that missionaries might stir up trouble or encourage the natives to challenge colonial authority. In general, colonial officials were much more comfortable with working with the established local leadership, including the native religions, rather than introducing the divisive force of Christianity. This proved especially troublesome in India, were very few local elites were attracted to Christianity. In Africa, especially, the missionaries made many converts. Of the 21st century there were more Anglicans in Nigeria than in England.[16][17]
Missionaries increasingly came to focus on education, medical help, and long-term modernization of the native personality to inculcate European middle-class values. They established schools and medical clinics. Christian missionaries played a public role, especially in promoting sanitation and public health. Many were trained as physicians, or took special courses in public health and tropical medicine at Livingstone College, London.[18]
After 1870[edit]
By the 1870s Protestant missions around the world generally acknowledged the long-term material goal was the formation of independent, self-governing, self-supporting, self-propagating churches. The rise of nationalism in the Third World provoked challenges from critics who complained that the missionaries were teaching Western ways, and ignoring the indigenous culture. The Boxer Rebellion in China in 1898 involved very large scale attacks on Christian missions and their converts. The First World War diverted resources, and pulled most Germans out of missionary work when that country lost its empire. The worldwide Great Depression of the 1930s was a major blow to funding mission activities.[19]
In 1910, the Edinburgh Missionary Conference was presided over by active SVM and YMCA leader (and future Nobel Peace Prize recipient) John R. Mott, an American Methodist layperson, the conference reviewed the state of evangelism, Bible translation, mobilization of church support, and the training of indigenous leadership.[20] Looking to the future, conferees worked on strategies for worldwide evangelism and cooperation. The conference not only established greater ecumenical cooperation in missions, but also essentially launched the modern ecumenical movement.
The next wave of missions was started by two missionaries, Cameron Townsend and Donald McGavran, around 1935. These men realized that although earlier missionaries had reached geographic areas, there were numerous ethnographic groups that were isolated by language, or class from the groups that missionaries had reached. Cameron formed Wycliffe Bible Translators to translate the Bible into native languages. McGavran concentrated on finding bridges to cross the class and cultural barriers in places like India, which has upwards of 4,600 peoples, separated by a combination of language, culture, and caste. Despite democratic reforms, caste and class differences are still fundamental in many cultures.
An equally important dimension of missions strategy is the indigenous method of nationals reaching their own people. In Asia this wave of missions was pioneered by men like Dr G. D. James of Singapore,[21] Rev Theodore Williams of India[22] and Dr David Cho of Korea. The "two thirds missions movement" as it is referred to, is today a major force in missions.
Most modern missionaries and missionary societies have repudiated cultural imperialism, and elected to focus on spreading the gospel and translating the Bible.[citation needed] Sometimes, missionaries have been vital in preserving and documenting the culture of the peoples among whom they live.
Often, missionaries provide welfare and health services, as a good deed or to make friends with the locals. Thousands of schools, orphanages, and hospitals have been established by missions. One service provided by missionaries was the Each one, teach one literacy program begun by Dr. Frank Laubach in the Philippines in 1935. The program has since spread around the world and brought literacy to the least enabled members of many societies.[citation needed]
During this period missionaries, especially evangelical and Pentecostal missionaries, witnessed a substantial increase in the number of conversions of Muslims to Christianity.[23] In an interview published in 2013 a leader of a key missionary agency focused on Muslims claimed that the world is living in a "day of salvation for Muslims everywhere."[24]
The word "mission" was historically often applied to the building, the "mission station" in which the missionary lives or works. In some colonies, these mission stations became a focus of settlement of displaced or formerly nomadic people. Particularly in rural Australia, missions have become localities or ghettoes on the edges of towns which are home to many Indigenous Australians. The word may be seen as derogatory when used in this context.
Additional events can be found at the timeline of Christian missions.
Contemporary concepts of mission[edit]
Sending and receiving nations[edit]
Major nations not only send and fund missionaries abroad, but also receive them from other countries. In 2010, the United States sent out 127,000 missionaries, while 32,400 came to the United States. Brazil was second, sending out 34,000, and receiving 20,000. France sent out 21,000 and received 10,000. Britain sent out 15,000 and received 10,000. India sent out 10,000 and received 8000. Other major exporters included Spain at 21,000 sent out, Italy at 20,000, South Korea at 20,000, Germany at 14,000, and Canada at 8,500. Large recipient nations included Russia, receiving 20,000; Congo receiving 15,000; South Africa, 12,000; Argentina, 10,000; and Chile, 8,500. The largest sending agency in the United States was the Southern Baptist Convention, with 4,800 missionaries, plus 450 support staff working inside the United States. The annual budget is about $50,000 per year per missionary. In recent years, however, the Southern Baptist foreign missionary operation (the International Mission Board) has operated at a deficit, and it is cutting operations by 15 percent. It is encouraging older missionaries to retire and return to the United States.[25]
Modern missionary methods and doctrines among conservative Protestants[edit]
The Lausanne Congress of 1974, birthed a movement that supports evangelical mission among non-Christians and nominal Christians. It regards "mission" as that which is designed "to form a viable indigenous church-planting and world changing movement." This definition is motivated by a theologically imperative theme of the Bible to make God known, as outlined in the Great Commission. The definition is claimed to summarize the acts of Jesus' ministry, which is taken as a model motivation for all ministries.
This Christian missionary movement seeks to implement churches after the pattern of the first century Apostles. The process of forming disciples is necessarily social. "Church" should be understood in the widest sense, as a body of believers of Christ rather than simply a building. In this view, even those who are already culturally Christian must be "evangelized".
Church planting by cross-cultural missionaries leads to the establishment of self-governing, self-supporting and self-propagating communities of believers. This is the famous "three-self" formula formulated by Henry Venn of the London Church Missionary Society in the 19th century. Cross-cultural missionaries are persons who accept church-planting duties to evangelize people outside their culture, as Christ commanded in the Great Commission (Matthew 28:18–20, Mark 16:15–18).
The objective of these missionaries is to give an understandable presentation of their beliefs with the hope that people will choose to following the teaching of Jesus Christ and live their lives as His disciples. As a matter of strategy, many evangelical Christians around the world now focus on what they call the "10/40 window", a band of countries between 10 and 40 degrees north latitude and reaching from western Africa through Asia. Christian missions strategist Luis Bush pinpointed the need for a major focus of evangelism in the "10/40 Window", a phrase he coined in his presentation at the missionary conference Lausanne 1989 in Manila. Sometimes referred to as the "Resistant Belt", it is an area that includes 35% of the world's land mass, 90% of the world's poorest peoples and 95% of those who have yet to hear anything about Christianity.
Modern mission techniques are sufficiently refined that within ten to fifteen years, most indigenous churches are locally pastored, managed, taught, self-supporting and evangelizing. The process can be substantially faster if a preexisting translation of the Bible and higher pastoral education are already available, perhaps left over from earlier, less effective missions.
One strategy is to let indigenous cultural groups decide to adopt Christian doctrines and benefits, when (as in most cultures) such major decisions are normally made by groups. In this way, opinion leaders in the groups can persuade much or most of the groups to convert. When combined with training in discipleship, church planting and other modern missionary doctrine, the result is an accelerating, self-propelled conversion of large portions of the culture.
A typical modern mission is a co-operative effort by many different ministries, often including several coordinating ministries, such as the Faith2Share network, often with separate funding sources. One typical effort proceeded as follows:
- A missionary radio group recruits, trains and broadcasts in the main dialect of the target culture's language. Broadcast content is carefully adapted to avoid syncretism yet help the Christian Gospel seem like a native, normal part of the target culture. Broadcast content often includes news, music, entertainment and education in the language, as well as purely Christian items.
- Broadcasts might advertise programs, inexpensive radios (possibly spring-wound), and a literature ministry that sells a Christian mail-order correspondence course at nominal costs. The literature ministry is key, and is normally a separate organization from the radio ministry. Modern literature missions are shifting to web-based content where it makes sense (as in Western Europe and Japan).
- When a person or group completes a correspondence course, they are invited to contact a church-planting missionary group from (if possible) a related cultural group. The church-planting ministry is usually a different ministry from either the literature or radio ministries. The church-planting ministry usually requires its missionaries to be fluent in the target language, and trained in modern church-planting techniques.
- The missionary then leads the group to start a church. Churches planted by these groups are usually a group that meets in a house. The object is the minimum organization that can perform the required character development and spiritual growth. Buildings, complex ministries and other expensive items are mentioned, but deprecated until the group naturally achieves the size and budget to afford them. The crucial training is how to become a Christian (by faith in Jesus Christ) and then how to set up a church (meet to study the Bible, and perform communion and worship), usually in that order.
- A new generation of churches is created, and the growth begins to accelerate geometrically. Frequently, daughter churches are created only a few months after a church's creation. In the fastest-growing Christian movements, the pastoral education is "pipelined", flowing in a just-in-time fashion from the central churches to daughter churches. That is, planting of churches does not wait for the complete training of pastors.
The most crucial part of church planting is selection and training of leadership. Classically, leadership training required an expensive stay at a seminary, a Bible college. Modern church planters deprecate this because it substantially slows the growth of the church without much immediate benefit. Modern mission doctrines replace the seminary with programmed curricula or (even less expensive) books of discussion questions, and access to real theological books. The materials are usually made available in a major trading language in which most native leaders are likely to be fluent. In some cases, the materials can be adapted for oral use.
It turns out that new pastors' practical needs for theology are well addressed by a combination of practical procedures for church planting, discussion in small groups, and motivated Bible-based study from diverse theological texts. As a culture's church's wealth increases, it will naturally form classic seminaries on its own.
Another related mission is Bible translation. The above-mentioned literature has to be translated. Missionaries actively experiment with advanced linguistic techniques to speed translation and literacy. Bible translation not only speeds a church's growth by aiding self-training, but it also assures that Christian information becomes a permanent part of the native culture and literature. Some ministries also use modern recording techniques to reach groups with audio that could not be soon reached with literature.
Among Roman Catholics[edit]
For Catholics, “Missions” is the term given to those particular undertakings by which the heralds of the Gospel, sent out by the Church and going forth into the whole world, carry out the task of preaching the Gospel and planting the Church among peoples or groups who do not yet believe in Christ.[26]
Vatican II made a deep impact on Catholic missions around the world. The Church's relations to non-Christian religions like Judaism and Islam were revisited.
A steep decline in the number of people entering the priesthood and religious life in the West has made the Church look towards laity more and more. Communities like Opus Dei arose to meet this need.
Inculturation increasingly became a key topic of missiological reflection for Catholics. Inculturation is understood as the meeting of the Christian message with a community in their cultural context.
Liberation Theology and liturgical reform have also been important in forming and influencing the mission of the Catholic Church in the 20th and 21st Centuries.
In relation to mission, Pope Benedict XVI made the re-evangelization of Europe and North America a priority in his own ministry,[27] even while the upper leadership of the Roman Catholic hierarchy and the college of cardinals has more members from Latin America, Africa, and Asia than ever before.[28]
Key documents on mission for Catholics during this period are Evangelii nuntiandi by Pope Paul VI and Redemptoris missio by Pope John Paul II.
Print and new media in mission[edit]
Christian mission organisations have long depended on the printed word as a channel through which to do mission. At times when countries have been "closed" to Christians, great efforts have been made to smuggle Bibles and other literature into those countries. Brother Andrew, the founder of Open Doors, started smuggling Bibles into communist countries in the 1950s.[29] Operation Mobilisation was established in 1957 by George Verwer.[30] Other Christian publishers, such as Plough Publishing, provide free books to people in the UK and US as a form of mission.[31] The Bible Society translates and prints Bibles, in an attempt to reach every country in the world.[32]
The internet now provides Christian mission organisations a convent way of reaching people in the form of podcasts. Podcasts provide a way of dissemination for a message that has potential to endanger the recipient, since it is very hard to track who has downloaded a specific podcast. An example of this is the Crescent Project.[33] Other podcasts, such as the Life Together podcast[34], The Sacred, and Harvest are aimed at both non-Christians and Christians in the home country.[35]
Reverse mission[edit]
Main article: Reverse mission
The shift in world Christian population from Europe and North America to the non-Western world, and the migration of Africans, Asians, and Latin Americans to the West has given rise to what some have termed "reverse mission." It demonstrates a reversal of the missionary movement, in that it reverses the direction of earlier missionary efforts.[36]
Criticism[edit]
See also: Rice Christian
Communicating diseases[edit]
Europe's contact with indigenous since 1492 has killed 100 million from the imported diseases to which tribes had no immunity.[37] Missionaries, along with other travelers, brought diseases into local populations. Smallpox, measles, even the common cold, have been blamed on their arrivals.[38] David Igler of the University of California, Irvine, includes missionary activity as a cause of spreading germs. However, he says that commercial traders were the main agents of disease.
... other diseases arrived on non-commercial voyages; missionary activities certainly spread germs, and Spanish conquests had dispersed deadly germs in parts of the Americas and Pacific prior to the late eighteenth century. Yet, for the period between the 1770s and the 1840s, trading vessels were the main agents of disease, creating in the Pacific what Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie has called a "paroxysm" of the "microbian unification of the world." By 1850, the microbes of Europe, Asia, and Africa circulated in almost every Pacific population.[39]
Response[edit]
Political scientist Robert Woodberry uses statistics to argue that conversionary Protestants were a crucial catalyst in spreading religious liberty, education, and democracy. He shows that statistically the prevalence of such missionaries account for half of the variance in democracy in Africa, Asia, Latin America and Oceania.[40] In a 2014 Christianity Today article, he remarks, "Areas where Protestant missionaries had a significant presence in the past are on average more economically developed today, with comparatively better health, lower infant mortality, lower corruption, greater literacy, higher educational attainment (especially for women), and more robust membership in nongovernmental associations."[41]
Controversy and Christian missionaries[edit]
"This proselytization will mean no peace in the world. Conversions are harmful to India. If I had the power and could legislate I should certainly stop all proselytizing ... It pains me to have to say that the Christian missionaries as a body, with honorable exceptions, have actively supported a system which has impoverished, enervated and demoralized a people considered to be among the gentlest and most civilized on earth".[42]
In India, Hindu organisations such as the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh assert that most conversions undertaken by zealous evangelicals occur due to compulsion, inducement or fraud.[43] In the Indian state of Tripura, the government has alleged financial and weapons-smuggling connections between Baptist missionaries and rebel groups such as the National Liberation Front of Tripura.[44] The accused Tripura Baptist Christian Union is a member body of the Baptist World Alliance.[45]
"In mid-May, the Vatican was also co-sponsoring a meeting about how some religious groups abuse liberties by proselytizing, or by evangelizing in aggressive or deceptive ways. Iraq ... has become an open field for foreigners looking for fresh converts. Some Catholic Church leaders and aid organizations have expressed concern about new Christian groups coming in and luring Iraqis to their churches with offers of cash, clothing, food or jobs.... Reports of aggressive proselytism and reportedly forced conversions in mostly Hindu India have fueled religious tensions and violence there and have prompted some regional governments to pass laws banning proselytism or religious conversion.... Sadhvi Vrnda Chaitanya, a Hindu monk from southern India, told CNS that India's poor and uneducated are especially vulnerable to coercive or deceptive methods of evangelization.... Aid work must not hide any ulterior motives and avoid exploiting vulnerable people like children and the disabled, she said."[46]
In an interview with Outlook Magazine, Sadhvi Vrnda Chaitanya said "If the Vatican could understand that every religious and spiritual tradition is as sacred as Christianity, and that they have a right to exist without being denigrated or extinguished, it will greatly serve the interests of dialogue, mutual respect, and peaceful coexistence."[47]
Aid and evangelism[edit]
While there is a general agreement among most major aid organizations not to mix aid with proselyting, others see disasters as a useful opportunity to spread the word. One such an occurrence was the tsunami that devastated parts of Asia on December 26, 2004.[48]
- "This (disaster) is one of the greatest opportunities God has given us to share his love with people," said K.P. Yohannan, president of the Texas-based Gospel for Asia. In an interview, Yohannan said his 14,500 "native missionaries" in India, Sri Lanka and the Andaman Islands are giving survivors Bibles and booklets about "how to find hope in this time through the word of God." In Krabi, Thailand, a Southern Baptist church had been "praying for a way to make inroads" with a particular ethnic group of fishermen, according to Southern Baptist relief coordinator Pat Julian. Then came the tsunami, "a phenomenal opportunity" to provide ministry and care, Julian told the Baptist Press news service.... Not all evangelicals agree with these tactics. "It's not appropriate in a crisis like this to take advantage of people who are hurting and suffering", said the Rev. Franklin Graham, head of Samaritan's Purse and son of evangelist Billy Graham."[49]
The Christian Science Monitor echoes these concerns... "'I think evangelists do this out of the best intentions, but there is a responsibility to try to understand other faith groups and their culture,' says Vince Isner, director of FaithfulAmerica.org, a program of the National Council of Churches USA."[50]
The Bush administration has made it easier for U.S. faith-based groups and missionary societies to tie aid and church together.
- For decades, US policy has sought to avoid intermingling government programs and religious proselytizing. The aim is both to abide by the Constitution's prohibition against a state religion and to ensure that aid recipients don't forgo assistance because they don't share the religion of the provider.... But many of those restrictions were removed by Bush in a little-noticed series of executive orders – a policy change that cleared the way for religious groups to obtain hundreds of millions of dollars in additional government funding. It also helped change the message American aid workers bring to many corners of the world, from emphasizing religious neutrality to touting the healing powers of the Christian God.[51]
Christian counter-claims[edit]
Missionaries say that the government in India has passed anti-conversion laws in several states that are supposedly meant to prevent conversions from "force or allurement," but are primarily used, they say, to persecute and criminalize voluntary conversion due to the government's broad definition of "force and allurement." Any gift received from a Christian in exchange for, or with the intention of, conversion is considered allurement. Voice of the Martyrs reports that aid-workers claim that they are being hindered from reaching people with much needed services as a result of this persecution.[52] Alan de Lastic, Roman Catholic archbishop of New Delhi states that claims of forced conversion are false.[53]
"'There are attacks practically every week, maybe not resulting in death, but still, violent attacks,' Richard Howell, general secretary of the Evangelical Fellowship of India tells The Christian Science Monitor today. 'They [India's controlling BJP party] have created an atmosphere where minorities do feel insecure.'"[54] According to Prakash Louis, director of the secular Indian Social Institute in New Delhi, "We are seeing a broad attempt to stifle religious minorities and their constitutional rights...Today, they say you have no right to convert, Tomorrow you have no right to worship in certain places."[55] Existing congregations, often during times of worship, are being persecuted.[56] Properties are sometimes destroyed and burnt to the ground, while native pastors are sometimes beaten and left for dead.[57][58][59][60][61][62][63]
See also[edit]
- Adventist Mission
- Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery
- Catholic missions
- Christianity and Paganism
- Christianization
- Emmanuel Community
- Evangelism
- Fidesco International
- List of Protestant missionary societies
- List of Christian missionaries
- Mission (LDS Church)
- Missional living
- Missionary
- Missionary (LDS Church)
- Neil Thomas Ministries
- Proselytism
- Religious conversion
- Reverse mission
- Short-term mission
- Timeline of Christian missions
- Youth With a Mission
References[edit]
- ^ "Mission". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 January 2013.
- ^ https://www.dictionary.com/browse/missionary
- ^ Jenkins, Philip (2008). The Lost History of Christianity: The Thousand Year Golden Age of the Church in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia —and How It Died.
- ^ Bridger, J. Scott (February 2009). "Raymond Lull: Medieval Theologian, Philosopher, and Missionary to Muslims" (PDF). St Francis Magazine. 5 (1): 1–25. Retrieved 7 January2013.
- ^ Liam Matthew Brockey, Journey to the east: The Jesuit mission to China, 1579–1724(Harvard University Press, 2009)
- ^ Županov, Ines G. (2005). Missionary Tropics: The Catholic Frontier in India (16th–17th centuries). University of Michigan. ISBN 978-0-472-11490-0.
- ^ Roy, Olivier (2010). Holy Ignorance. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 48–56. ISBN 978-0-231-70126-6.
- ^ Jump up to:a b Walls, Andrew F. (November 2016). "Eschatology and the Western Missionary Movement". Studies in World Christianity. 22 (3): 182–200. doi:10.3366/swc.2016.0155.
- ^ Miller, Duane Alexander (December 2007). "The Installation of a Bishop in Jerusalem". Anglican and Episcopal History. 76 (4): 549–554. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
- ^ Miller, Duane Alexander (June 2010). "Renegotiating the Boundaries of Evangelicalism in Jerusalem's Christian Quarter". Anglican and Episcopal History. 79 (2): 185–188. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
- ^ Ward, Kevin (2006). A History of Global Anglicanism. New York: Cambridge U Press. p. 34.
- ^ Susan Thorne (1999). Congregational Missions and the Making of an Imperial Culture in Nineteenth-Century England. Stanford University Press, ch 1. ISBN 9780804765442.
- ^ Andrew Porter, Religion versus Empire?: British Protestant Missionaries and Overseas Expansion, 1700–1914 (2004)
- ^ Mark A. Noll, The Rise of Evangelicalism: The Age of Edwards, Whitefield and the Wesleys(2010).
- ^ Andrew Porter, "Religion, Missionary Enthusiasm, and Empire," in Porter, ed., Oxford History of the British Empire (1999) vol 3 pp 223–24.
- ^ Norman Etherington, ed. Missions and Empire (Oxford History of the British Empire Companion Series) (2008)
- ^ Porter, "Religion, Missionary Enthusiasm, and Empire," (1999) vol 3 ch 11
- ^ Ryan Johnson, "Colonial Mission and Imperial Tropical Medicine: Livingstone College, London, 1893–1914," Social History of Medicine (2010) 23#3 pp 549–566.
- ^ Erwin Fahlbusch, ed. The Encyclopedia of Christianity (1999) 1:301, 416–7
- ^ Gairdner, Temple (1910). Echoes from Edinburgh 1910. London: Anderson & Ferrier.
- ^ James-Nathan, Violet (2000). "One". In Jonathan James and Malcolm Tan (ed.). That Asia May Know: Perspectives on Missions in Asia (40th Anniversary Commemorative ed.). Asia Evangelistic Fellowship International. pp. 8–43. ISBN 978-0-646-39763-4.
- ^ "Indian Evangelical Mission". Retrieved 1 February 2014.
- ^ Miller, Duane Alexander (February 2010). "Woven in the Weakness of the Changing Body: the Genesis of World Islamic Christianity" (PDF). CTFC. 2. Retrieved 7 January 2013.
- ^ Blincoe, Bob; Duane Alexander Miller (January 2013). "The Day of Salvation for Muslims Everywhere: an interview with Bob Blincoe". Global Missiology. 10 (2). Retrieved 7 January2013.
- ^ Tamara Audi, "Cash-Strapped Missionaries Get a New Calling: Home—Years of overspending to support Southern Baptist missionary work has led to budget crunch," Wall Street Journal 25 October, 2015.
- ^ Decree on the Mission Activity of the Church: Ad Gentes. (Para. 6) In Vatican II Documents, (1965), Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana.
- ^ Edwards, Tito (June 2010). "Benedict Opens New Evangelization of Europe and America Office". The American Catholic. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
- ^ Palmo, Rocco. "B16's October Surprise". Retrieved 18 January 2013.
- ^ Ireland, Open Doors UK &. "Open Doors history". www.opendoorsuk.org. Retrieved 2017-06-15.
- ^ Mobilisation, Operation. "About Operation Mobilisation". Operation Mobilisation. Archived from the original on 2016-12-24. Retrieved 2017-06-15.
- ^ "About Us". Plough. Retrieved 2017-06-15.
- ^ "Home". www.biblesociety.org.uk. Retrieved 2017-06-15.
- ^ "Podcast — Crescent Project". Crescent Project. Retrieved 2018-11-22.
- ^ "Bruderhof Communities". SoundCloud. Retrieved 2018-11-22.
- ^ "Podcasts - Harvest: Greg Laurie". Harvest: Greg Laurie. Retrieved 2018-11-22.
- ^ Ojo, Matthew (2007). "Reverse Mission". In Bonk, Jonathan J. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Mission and Missionaries. London: Routledge. pp. 380–382.
- ^ Is It Ethical to Leave Uncontacted Tribes Alone?, Time (magazine), 4 June 2015.
- ^ Witmer, A. C. (September 1885). "The Islands of the Sea". The Gospel in All Lands. New York, NY: Methodist Episcopal Church Mission Society: 437. Retrieved 2011-11-20.
- ^ Igler, David (June 2004). "Diseased Goods: Global Exchanges in the Eastern Pacific Basin, 1770–1850". The American Historical Review. Chicago, Illinois: American Historical Association. 109 (3): 693–719. doi:10.1086/530552. Retrieved 2011-11-20.
- ^ Robert D. Woodberry, "The missionary roots of liberal democracy," American Political Science Review 106.2 (2012): 244–274 / online
- ^ "Missions: Rescuing from Hell and Renewing the World". 2014-01-13.
- ^ The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi Volume 24, p. 476 Note: This quote isn't in this volume. In fact the volume only contains 474 pages; volume 64 p.20 has the first sentence only:This proselytization will mean no peace in the world
- ^ "Why Anti-Conversion Law needed". Archived from the original on 2008-12-02. Retrieved 2008-02-24.
- ^ Subir Bhaumik (18 April 2000). "Church backing Tripura rebels". BBC News. Retrieved August 9, 2007.
- ^ [1] Archived April 15, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Carol Glatz (May 19, 2006). "Legislating conversions: Weighing the message vs. the person". Catholic Online. Archived from the original on July 1, 2007. Retrieved August 7,2007.
- ^ Seema Sirohi (October 2, 2006). "Father Complex". OutlookIndia.com. Archived from the original on June 30, 2013. Retrieved August 7, 2007.
- ^ Burke, Jason (January 16, 2005). "Religious aid groups try to convert victims". The Guardian. Retrieved June 19, 2013.
- ^ "In Asia, some Christian groups spread supplies – and the word". Knight-Ridder Newspapers. January 12, 2005. Retrieved June 19, 2013.
- ^ Jane Lampman (January 31, 2005). "Disaster Aid Furthers Fears of Proselytizing". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved August 7, 2007.
- ^ "Bush brings faith to foreign aid". Boston.com. The Boston Globe. October 8, 2006. Retrieved August 7, 2007.
- ^ "Country Map – India". Persecution.com. Retrieved August 7, 2007.[permanent dead link](website requires anonymous creation of a username and password account to be able to view)
- ^ "Indian Express". Archived from the original on 2009-04-12. Retrieved 2013-04-15.
- ^ Ted Olsen (September 1, 2003). "Weblog: Missionaries in India Concerned as Hindu Activists Break Up Prayer Meeting". Christianity Today. Retrieved August 7, 2007.
- ^ Ted Olsen (September 1, 2003). "Weblog: Missionaries in India Concerned as Hindu Activists Break Up Prayer Meeting". Christianity Today. Retrieved August 7, 2007.
- ^ "Christian murdered in Kerala". Christian Today – India Edition. February 14, 2007. Retrieved August 7, 2007.
- ^ "Two Nuns accused and held for trying to "convert" students". Evangelical Fellowship of India. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved August 7, 2007.
- ^ "Five arrested for assaulting trainee priests in Panvel". Evangelical Fellowship of India. March 7, 2007. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved August 7,2007.
- ^ "Christians attacked in Jalampur, Dhamtari in Chhattisgarh". Evangelical Fellowship of India. January 10, 2006. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved August 7, 2007.
- ^ Jacob Chaterjee (February 12, 2007). "Hindu radicals attack believers in Karnataka". Christian Today – India Edition. Retrieved August 7, 2007.
- ^ Jacob Chaterjee (February 20, 2007). "Hindu radicals attack Bible college students during outreach; two in critical condition". Christian Today – India Edition. Retrieved August 7,2007.
- ^ Jacob Chaterjee (February 6, 2007). "Hindu radicals attack Christian prayer meeting in Bihar". Retrieved August 7, 2007.
- ^ Jacob Chaterjee (February 18, 2007). "Hindu fanatics oppose Christian-run orphanage and Bible center in Himachal Pradesh". Christian Today – India Edition. Retrieved August 7,2007.
Further reading[edit]
- Anderson, Gerald H., (ed.) Biographical dictionary of Christian missions, Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1998
- Arles, Siga. Theological Education for the Mission of the Church in India: 1947 - 1987, New York: Peter Lang, 1992.
- Bainbridge, William F. Around the World Tour of Christian Missions: A Universal Survey (1882) 583 pages; full text online
- Barnes, Jonathan S. Power and Partnership: A History of the Protestant Mission Movement (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2013)
- Barrett, David, ed. World Christian Encyclopedia, Oxford University Press, 1982.
- Beaver, R. Pierce. "North American Thought on the Fundamental Principles of Missions During the Twentieth Century." Church History 21.4 (1952): 345–364.
- Beaver, R. Pierce. ed American Missions in Bicentennial Perspective(1977).
- Beaver, Robert Pierce. American Protestant Women in World Mission: History of the First Feminist Movement in North America. (WB Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1980).
- Beaver, Robert Pierce. Church, state, and the American Indians: two and a half centuries of partnership in missions between Protestant churches and government (Concordia Pub. House, 1966).
- Beaver, Robert Pierce. Missionary Motivation through Three Centuries (1968).
- Best, Jeremy. "Godly, International, and Independent: German Protestant Missionary Loyalties before World War I." Central European History (2014) 47#3 pp: 585–611.
- Bevans, Stephen B. A Century of Catholic Mission (2013) excerpt; wide-ranging survey focused on 20th century worldwide
- The Catholic Encyclopedia, (1913) online, worldwide detailed coverage
- Cnattingius, Hans. Bishops and societies: A study of Anglican colonial and missionary expansion, 1698–1850 (1952)
- Dries, Angelyn. The missionary movement in American Catholic history (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1998)
- Dunch, Ryan. "Beyond cultural imperialism: Cultural theory, Christian missions, and global modernity." History and Theory 41.3 (2002): 301–325. online
- Dwight, Henry Otis et al. eds., The Encyclopedia of Missions (2nd ed. 1904) Online, Global coverage Of Protestant and Catholic missions.
- Endres, David J. American Crusade: Catholic Youth in the World Mission Movement from World War I Through Vatican II (2010)
- Etherington, Norman, ed. Missions and Empire (Oxford History of the British Empire Companion Series) (2008)
- Fitzpatrick-Behrens, Susan. The Maryknoll Catholic Mission in Peru, 1943–1989: Transnational Faith and Transformation (2012)
- Glazier, Michael and Monika K. Hellwig, eds., The Modern Catholic Encyclopedia, Liturgical Press, 2004
- Glover, Robert H. The Progress of World-Wide Missions, rev. by J. Herbert Kane., Harper and Row, 1960
- Graham, Gael. Gender, culture, and Christianity: American Protestant mission schools in China, 1880–1930 (P. Lang, 1995)
- Herzog, Johann Jakob, Philip Schaff, and Albert Hauck. The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, 12 volumes, Funk and Wagnalls Company, 1910–11
- Hollinger, David A. Protestants Abroad: How Missionaries Tried to Change the World but Changed America (2017) excerpt
- Huntley, Martha. Caring, growing, changing: a history of the Protestant mission in Korea (Friendship Press, 1984)
- Hutchison, William R. (1993). Errand to the World: American Protestant Thought and Foreign Missions. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226363103.
- Kane, J. Herbert. A Concise History of the Christian World Mission, Baker, 1982
- Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A History of the Expansion of Christianity, 7 volumes, (1938–45), the most detailed scholarly history
- MacCulloch, Diarmaid. Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years (2009)
- Moreau, A. Scott, David Burnett, Charles Edward van Engen and Harold A. Netland. Evangelical Dictionary of World Missions, Baker Book House Company, 2000
- Neill, Stephen. A History of Christian Missions. Penguin Books, 1986
- Newcomb, Harvey. A Cyclopedia of Missions: Containing a Comprehensive View of Missionary Operations Throughout the World : with Geographical Descriptions, and Accounts of the Social, Moral, and Religious Condition of the People (1860) 792 pages complete text online
- Pocock, Michael, Gailyn Van Rheenen, Douglas McConnell. The Changing Face of World Missions: Engaging Contemporary Issues And Trends (2005); 391 pages
- Ragsdale, John P. Protestant mission education in Zambia, 1880–1954 (Susquehanna University Press, 1986)
- Robert, Dana L. Christian Mission: How Christianity Became a World Religion (2009), 226pp; short survey
- Stanley, Brian. The Bible and the Flag: Protestant Mission and British Imperialism in the 19th and 20th Centuries (1990)
- Stanley, Brian. The Global Diffusion of Evangelicalism: The Age of Billy Graham and John Stott (2013)
- Tejirian, Eleanor H., and Reeva Spector Simon, eds. Conflict, Conquest, and Conversion: Two Thousand Years of Christian Missions in the Middle East (Columbia University Press; 2012) 280 pages; focus on the 19th and 20th centuries.
- Tyrrell, Ian. Reforming the World: The Creation of America's Moral Empire (2010) excerpt and text search
- Tucker, Ruth. From Jerusalem to Irian Jaya:From Jerusalem to Irian Jaya: A Biographical History of Christian Missions (2nd ed. 2004) excerpt and text search
- Yates, Timothy. The Conversion of the Maori: Years of Religious and Social Change, 1814–1842 (2013)
- Županov, Ines G. (2005). Missionary Tropics: The Catholic Frontier in India (16th–17th centuries). University of Michigan. ISBN 978-0-472-11490-0.
- Journal Social Sciences and Missions (Leiden: Brill), 1995–...
- Positive or neutral
- Gailey and Culbertson. Discovering Missions by ISBN 0-8341-2257-X
- Johnstone Operation World ISBN 1-85078-357-8
- Moreau, Corwin and McGree. Introducing World Missions ISBN 0-8010-2648-2
- Olson, C. Gordon. What in the World is God Doing? Global Gospel Publishers, 2003
- Parker, J. Fred. Mission to the World. Nazarene Publishing House, 1988
- Van Rheenen Missions by ISBN 0-310-20809-2
- Winter and Hawthorne, eds. Perspectives on the World Christian Movement ISBN 0-87808-289-1
- Critical
- "Vindicated by time – The Niyogi Committee Report On Christian Missionary Activities in Madhya Pradesh (India)"
- "History of Hindu – Christian Encounters 304 AD to 1996" By Sita Ram Goel, Publisher:Voice of India, New Delhi
- Shourie, A. (1994). Missionaries in India: Continuities, changes, dilemmas. New Delhi: ASA Publications.
- Missionary Conquest: The Gospel and Native American Cultural Genocide by George E. Tinker ISBN 978-0-8006-2576-4
- The Missionaries: God Against the Indians by Norman Lewis ISBN 0-14-013175-2
- The Dark Side of Christian History by Helen Ellerbe ISBN 0-9644873-4-9
- Goel, S. R. (1996). History of Hindu-Christian encounters, AD 304 to 1996. ISBN 8185990352
- Repression of Buddhism in Sri Lanka by the Portuguese (1505–1658) by Senaka Weeraratna
- Rajiv Malhotra: How Evangelists Invented 'Dravidian Christianity'
- Peter Rohrbacher: Völkerkunde und Afrikanistik für den Papst. Missionsexperten und der Vatikan 1922–1939 in: Römische Historische Mitteilungen 54 (2012), 583–610.
External links[edit]
- Missionary Organizations, missionary organizations directory
- Missiology.org, resources on missions (Christian) education.
- LFM. Social sciences & missions (academic journal)
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