2020/11/07

Mechanisms of mindfulness meditation - Wikipedia

Mechanisms of mindfulness meditation - Wikipedia

Mechanisms of mindfulness meditation

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Mindfulness
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Category:Mindfulness

Mindfulness has been defined in modern psychological terms as "paying attention to relevant aspects of experience in a nonjudgmental manner",[1] and maintaining attention on present moment experience with an attitude of openness and acceptance.[2] Meditation is a platform used to achieve mindfulness. Both practices, mindfulness and meditation, have been "directly inspired from the Buddhist tradition"[3] and have been widely promoted by Jon Kabat-Zinn. Mindfulness meditation has been shown to have a positive impact on several psychiatric problems such as depression and therefore has formed the basis of mindfulness programs[4] such as mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, mindfulness-based stress reduction and mindfulness-based pain management. The applications of mindfulness meditation are well established, however the mechanisms that underlie this practice are yet to be fully understood.

Mindfulness Meditation

Four components of mindfulness meditation have been proposed to describe much of the mechanism of action by which mindfulness meditation may work: attention regulation, body awareness, emotion regulation, and change in perspective on the self.[4] All of the components described above are connected to each other. For example, when a person is triggered by an external stimulus, the executive attention system attempts to maintain a mindful state. There is also a heightened body awareness such as a rapid heartbeat which triggers an emotional response. The response is then regulated so that it does not become habitual, but constantly changes from moment to moment experience. This eventually leads to a change in the perspective of the self.

Attention regulation[edit]

Anterior cingulate cortex

Attention regulation is the task of focusing attention on an object, acknowledging any distractions, and then returning your focus back to the object. Some evidence for mechanisms responsible for attention regulation during mindfulness meditation are shown below.

  • Mindfulness meditators showed greater activation of rostral anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC).[5] This suggests that meditators have a stronger processing of conflict/distraction and are more engaged in emotional regulation. However, as the meditators become more efficient at focused attention, regulation becomes unnecessary and consequentially decreases activation of ACC in the long term.[6]
  • The cortical thickness in the dorsal ACC was also found to be greater in the gray matter of experienced meditators.[7]
  • There is an increased frontal midline theta rhythm, which is related to attention demanding tasks and is believed to be indicative of ACC activation.[8] High midline theta rhythm has been associated with lowest anxiety score in the Manifest Anxiety Scale (MAS), the highest score in the extrovertive scale of the Maudsley Personality Inventory (MPI) and the lowest score in the neurotic scale of MPI.[9]

The ACC detects conflicting information coming from distractions. When a person is presented with a conflicting stimulus, the brain initially processes the stimulus incorrectly. This is known as error-related negativity (ERN). Before the ERN reaches a threshold, the correct conflict is detected by the frontocentral N2. After the correction, the rostral ACC is activated and allows for executive attention to the correct stimulus.[10] Therefore, mindfulness meditation could potentially be a method for treating attention related disorders such as ADHD and bipolar disorder.

Body awareness[edit]

Gray matter & insula

Body awareness refers to focusing on an object/task within the body such as breathing. From a qualitative interview with ten mindfulness meditators, some of the following responses were observed: "When I'm walking, I deliberately notice the sensations of my body moving" and "I notice how foods and drinks affect my thoughts, bodily sensations, and emotions”.[11] The two possible mechanisms by which a mindfulness meditator can experience body awareness are discussed below.

  • Meditators showed a greater cortical thickness [12] and greater gray matter concentration in the right anterior insula.[13]
  • On the contrary, subjects who had undergone 8 weeks of mindfulness training showed no significant change in gray matter concentration of the insula, but rather an increase gray matter concentration of the temporo-parietal junction.[14]

The insula is responsible for awareness to stimuli and the thickness of its gray matter correlates to the accuracy and detection of the stimuli by the nervous system.[15][16] Qualitative evidence suggests that mindfulness meditation impacts body awareness, however this component is not well characterized.[4]

Emotion regulation[edit]

Prefrontal cortex & amygdala

Emotions can be regulated cognitively or behaviorally. Cognitive regulation (in terms of mindfulness meditation) means having control over giving attention to a particular stimuli or by changing the response to that stimuli. The cognitive change is achieved through reappraisal (interpreting the stimulus in a more positive manner) and extinction (reversing the response to the stimulus). Behavioral regulation refers to inhibiting the expression of certain behaviors in response to a stimulus. Research suggests two main mechanisms for how mindfulness meditation influences the emotional response to a stimulus.

  • Mindfulness meditation regulates emotions via increased activation of the dorso-medial PFC and rostral ACC.[5]
  • Increased activation of the ventrolateral PFC can regulate emotion by decreasing the activity of the amygdala.[17][18][19] This was also predicted by a study that observed the effect of a person's mood/attitude during mindfulness on brain activation.[20]

Lateral prefrontal cortex (lPFC) is important for selective attention while ventral prefrontal cortex (vPFC) is involved in inhibiting a response. As noted before, the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) has been noted for maintaining attention to a stimulus. The amygdala is responsible for generating emotions. Mindfulness meditation is believed to be able to regulate negative thoughts and decrease emotional reactivity through these regions of the brain. Emotion regulation deficits have been noted in disorders such as borderline personality disorder [21] and depression.[22] These deficits have been associated with reduced prefrontal activation and increased amygdala activity, which mindfulness meditation might be able to attenuate.

Pain[edit]

See also: Meditation and pain and Mindfulness-based pain management

Pain is known to activate the following regions of the brain: the anterior cingulate cortex, anterior/posterior insula, primary/secondary somatosensory cortices, and the thalamus.[23] Mindfulness meditation may provide several methods by which a person can consciously regulate pain.[23]

  • Brown and Jones found that mindfulness meditation decreased pain anticipation in the right parietal cortex and mid-cingulate cortex. Mindfulness meditation also increased the activity of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and ventromedial-prefrontal cortex (vm-PFC). Since the vm-PFC is involved in inhibiting emotional responses to stimuli, anticipation to pain was concluded to be reduced by cognitive and emotional control.[24]
  • Another study by Grant revealed that meditators showed greater activation of insula, thalamus, and mid-cingulate cortex while a lower activation of the regions responsible for emotion control (medial-PFC, OFC, and amygdala). Meditators were believed to be in a mental state that allowed them to pay close attention to the sensory input from the stimuli and simultaneously inhibit any appraisal or emotional reactivity.[7]

Brown and Jones found that meditators showed no difference in pain sensitivity but rather the anticipation in pain. However, Grant's research showed that meditators experienced lower sensitivity to pain. These conflicting studies illustrate that the exact mechanism may vary with the expertise level or meditation technique.[23]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Ludwig David S (2008-09-17). "MIndfulness in medicine". JAMA. 300 (11): 1350–1352. doi:10.1001/jama.300.11.1350. ISSN 0098-7484. PMID 18799450.
  2. ^ Bishop, Scott R.; Lau, Mark; Shapiro, Shauna; Carlson, Linda; Anderson, Nicole D.; Carmody, James; Segal, Zindel V.; Abbey, Susan; Speca, Michael (2004-09-01). "Mindfulness: A Proposed Operational Definition". Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. 11 (3): 230–241. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.168.6212. doi:10.1093/clipsy.bph077. ISSN 1468-2850.
  3. ^ Desbordes, Gaëlle; Gard, Tim; Hoge, Elizabeth A.; Hölzel, Britta K.; Kerr, Catherine; Lazar, Sara W.; Olendzki, Andrew; Vago, David R. (2014-01-21). "Moving Beyond Mindfulness: Defining Equanimity as an Outcome Measure in Meditation and Contemplative Research". Mindfulness. 6 (2): 356–372. doi:10.1007/s12671-013-0269-8. ISSN 1868-8527. PMC 4350240. PMID 25750687.
  4. ^ Jump up to:a b c Holzel B. K.; Lazar S. W.; Gard T.; Schuman-Olivier Z.; Vago D. R.; Ott U. (2011). "How Does Mindfulness Meditation Work? Proposing Mechanisms of Action From a Conceptual and Neural Perspective". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 6 (6): 537–559. doi:10.1177/1745691611419671. PMID 26168376. S2CID 2218023.
  5. ^ Jump up to:a b Hölzel B.K.; Ott U.; Hempel H.; Hackl A.; Wolf K.; Stark R.; Vaitl D. (2007). "Differential engagement of anterior cingulate cortex and adjacent medial frontal cortex in adept meditators and nonmeditators". Neuroscience Letters. 421 (1): 16–21. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2007.04.074. PMID 17548160. S2CID 3195263.
  6. ^ Brefczynski-Lewis J.A.; Lutz A.; Schaefer H.S.; Levinson D.B.; Davidson R.J. (2007). "Neural correlates of attentional expertise in long-term meditation practitioners". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 104 (27): 11483–11488. doi:10.1073/pnas.0606552104. PMC 1903340. PMID 17596341.
  7. ^ Jump up to:a b Grant J.A.; Courtemanche J.; Duerden E.G.; Duncan G.H.; Rainville P. (2010). "Cortical thickness and pain sensitivity in Zen meditators". Emotion. 10 (1): 43–53. doi:10.1037/a0018334. PMID 20141301.
  8. ^ Asada H.; Fukuda Y.; Tsunoda S.; Yamaguchi M.; Tonoike M. (1999). "Frontal midline theta rhythms reflect alternative activation of prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex in humans". Neuroscience Letters. 274 (1): 29–32. doi:10.1016/s0304-3940(99)00679-5. PMID 10530512. S2CID 133314.
  9. ^ Inanaga K (1998). "Frontal midline theta rhythm and mental activity". Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 52 (6): 555–66. doi:10.1046/j.1440-1819.1998.00452.x. PMID 9895201.
  10. ^ van Veen V.; Carter C.S. (2002). "The anterior cingulate as a conflict monitor: FMRI and ERP studies". Physiology & Behavior. 77 (4–5): 477–482. doi:10.1016/s0031-9384(02)00930-7. PMID 12526986. S2CID 7440189.
  11. ^ Hölzel, B.K., Ott, U., Hempel, H., & Stark, R. (2006, May). Wie wirkt Achtsamkeit? Eine Interviewstudie mit erfahrenen Meditierenden(How does mindfulness work? An interview study with experienced meditators). Paper presented at the 24th Symposium of the Section for Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy of the German Society for Psychology, Würzburg, Germany.
  12. ^ Lazar S.W.; Kerr C.E.; Wasserman R.H.; Gray J.R.; Greve D.N.; Treadway M.T.; Fischl B. (2005). "Meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thickness". NeuroReport. 16 (17): 1893–1897. doi:10.1097/01.wnr.0000186598.66243.19. PMC 1361002. PMID 16272874.
  13. ^ Hölzel B.K.; Ott U.; Gard T.; Hempel H.; Weygandt M.; Morgen K.; Vaitl D. (2008). "Investigation of mindfulness meditation practitioners with voxel-based morphometry". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 3 (1): 55–61. doi:10.1093/scan/nsm038. PMC 2569815. PMID 19015095.
  14. ^ Hölzel B.K.; Carmody J.; Vangel M.; Congleton C.; Yerramsetti S.M.; Gard T.; Lazar S.W. (2011). "Mindfulness practice leads to increases in regional brain gray matter density". Psychiatry Research. 191 (1): 36–43. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.08.006. PMC 3004979. PMID 21071182.
  15. ^ Craig A.D. (2003). "Interoception: The sense of the physiological condition of the body". Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 13 (4): 500–505. doi:10.1016/s0959-4388(03)00090-4. PMID 12965300. S2CID 16369323.
  16. ^ Critchley H.D.; Wiens S.; Rotshtein P.; Ohman A.; Dolan R.J. (2004). "Neural systems supporting interoceptive awareness". Nature Neuroscience. 7 (2): 189–195. doi:10.1038/nn1176. hdl:21.11116/0000-0001-A2FB-D. PMID 14730305. S2CID 13344271.
  17. ^ Harenski C.L.; Hamann S. (2006). "Neural correlates of regulating negative emotions related to moral violations". NeuroImage. 30 (1): 313–324. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.09.034. PMID 16249098. S2CID 44536441.
  18. ^ Beauregard M.; Levesque J.; Bourgouin P. (2001). "Neural correlates of conscious self-regulation of emotion". Journal of Neuroscience. 21 (18): RC165. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.21-18-j0001.2001. PMID 11549754.
  19. ^ Schaefer S.M.; Jackson D.C.; Davidson R.J.; Aguirre G.K.; Kimberg D.Y.; Thompson-Schill S.L. (2002). "Modulation of amygdalar activity by the conscious regulation of negative emotion". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 14 (6): 913–921. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.233.1177. doi:10.1162/089892902760191135. PMID 12191458. S2CID 6505386.
  20. ^ Creswell J.D.; Way B.M.; Eisenberger N.I.; Lieberman M.D. (2007). "Neural correlates of dispositional mindfulness during affect labeling". Psychosomatic Medicine. 69 (6): 560–565. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.432.24. doi:10.1097/psy.0b013e3180f6171f. PMID 17634566. S2CID 17668546.
  21. ^ Silbersweig D.; Clarkin J.F.; Goldstein M.; Kernberg O.F.; Tuescher O.; Levy K.N.; Rauch S.L. (2007). "Failure of frontolimbic inhibitory function in the context of negative emotion in borderline personality disorder". American Journal of Psychiatry. 164 (12): 1832–1841. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.06010126. PMID 18056238.
  22. ^ Abercrombie H.C.; Schaefer S.M.; Larson C.L.; Oakes T.R.; Lindgren K.A.; Holden J.E.; Davidson R.J. (1998). "Metabolic rate in the right amygdala predicts negative affect in depressed patients". NeuroReport. 9 (14): 3301–3307. doi:10.1097/00001756-199810050-00028. PMID 9831467. S2CID 35365996.
  23. ^ Jump up to:a b c Zeidan F.; Grant J. A.; Brown C. A.; McHaffie J. G.; Coghill R. C. (2012). "Mindfulness meditation-related pain relief: Evidence for unique brain mechanisms in the regulation of pain". Neuroscience Letters. 520 (2): 165–173. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2012.03.082. PMC 3580050. PMID 22487846.
  24. ^ Brown C.A.; Jones A.K. (2010). "Meditation experience predicts less negative appraisal of pain: electrophysiological evidence for the involvement of anticipatory neural responses". Pain. 150 (3): 428–438. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2010.04.017. PMID 20494517. S2CID 1470213.

External links[edit]

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Brain activity and meditation - Wikipedia Buddha’s Brain by Rick Hanson, Critics, like Owen Flanagan

Brain activity and meditation - Wikipedia


Brain activity and meditation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


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This article is about the specific effects of meditation on the human brain. For general information about meditation, see Meditation. For research on meditation, see Research on meditation.

Highlighted region shows the anterior cingulate cortex, a region of the brain shown to be activated during meditation.

Meditation and its effect on brain activity and the central nervous system became a focus of collaborative research in neuroscience, psychology and neurobiology during the latter half of the 20th century. Research on meditation sought to define and characterize various practices. Meditation’s effect on the brain can be broken up into two categories: state changes and trait changes, respectively alterations in brain activities during the act of meditating and changes that are the outcome of long-term practice.

Mindfulness meditation is frequently studied, a Buddhist meditation approach found in Zen and Vipassana.[1][2] Jon Kabat-Zinn describes mindfulness meditation as a complete, unbiased attention to the current moment.[3]


Contents
1Changes in brain state
1.1Electroencephalography
1.2Neuroimaging
1.2.1Topographical findings
1.2.2Study on meditation and emotion
2Changes in brain due to the prolonged practice
2.1Electroencephalography
2.2Neuroimaging
2.3Validity of findings
3Popular literature
3.1Positive portrayal
3.2Rebuttal
4See also
5References


Changes in brain state[edit]
Electroencephalography[edit]

Electroencephalography (EEG) has been used in many studies as a primary method for evaluating the meditating brain. Electroencephalography uses electrical leads placed all over the scalp to measure the collective electrical activity of the cerebral cortex. Specifically, EEG measures the electric fields of large groups of neurons. EEG has the benefit of excellent temporal resolution and is able to measure aggregate activity of portions or the entire cortex down to the millisecond scale. Unlike other imaging based methods, EEG does not have good spatial resolution and is more appropriately used to evaluate the running spontaneous activity of the cortex. This spontaneous activity is classified into four main classifications based on the frequency of the activity, ranging from low frequency delta waves (< 4 Hz) commonly found during sleep to beta waves (13–30 Hz) associated with an awake and alert brain. In between these two extremes are theta waves (4–8 Hz) and alpha waves (8–12 Hz).

Many studies on mindfulness meditation, assessed in a review by Cahn and Polich in 2006, have linked lower frequency alpha waves, as well as theta waves, to meditation.[4] Much older studies report more specific findings, such as decreased alpha blocking and increased frontal lobe specific theta activity.[5] Alpha blocking is a phenomenon where the active brain, normally presenting beta wave activity, cannot as easily switch to alpha wave activity often involved in memory recall. These findings would suggest that in a meditative state a person is more relaxed but maintains a sharp awareness. Two large, comprehensive review works, however, point to poor control and statistical analyses in these early studies and comment that it can only be said with confidence that increased alpha and theta wave activity exists.[4][6]

A statue of Buddha meditating.
Neuroimaging[edit]

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is another highly utilized methodology for studying state changes in meditating brains. fMRI detects subtle increases in blood flow to areas of the brain with higher metabolic activity. Thus these areas of increased metabolic activity indicate which regions of the brain are currently being used to process whatever stimuli presented. Counter to EEG, the advantage of fMRI is its spatial resolution, with the ability to produce detailed spatial maps of brain activity. It suffers, however, in temporal resolution and cannot measure progressive activity, like the EEG, with much detail.
Topographical findings[edit]

As a relatively new technology, fMRI has only recently been used to assess brain state changes during meditation. Studies have shown heightened activity in the anterior cingulate cortex, frontal cortex, and prefrontal cortex, specifically in the dorsal medial prefrontal area during Vipassana meditation.[7] Similarly, the cingulate cortex and frontal cortex areas were shown to have increased activity during Zen meditation.[8] Both studies comment on the possibility that these findings could indicate some state of heightened voluntary control over attention during mindfulness meditation. Review works by Cahn and Chiesa state that these results indicate consistency in meditation’s effect on these regions of the brain, citing a multitude of other studies spanning other meditative disciplines, but mention the need for further investigation with better controls.[4][6]

Study on meditation and emotion[edit]

The review by Cahn also notes findings describing a heightened emotional state of meditators. A more complex study, conducted in 2008 by Lutz et al., focused on emotional response during meditation.[9] This investigation involved the creation of a “compassion meditation” state by novice and experienced meditators and testing the meditators response to emotionally charged sounds. fMRI results indicated heightened activity in the cingulate cortex but also in the amygdala, temporo-parietal junction, and right posterior superior temporal sulcus in response to the emotional sounds. The authors of this study believe this indicates greater sensitivity to emotional expression and positive emotion due to the neural circuitry activated.[9]

Changes in brain due to the prolonged practice[edit]
Electroencephalography[edit]

Similar to research into state changes in brain function, older studies make more specific claims about trait changes in meditators versus non-meditators. Changes to the alpha wave were indicated to be a trait, as well as state, phenomena. Studies have reported an increase in the specific frequencies expressed in the alpha range, increased alpha band power, and an overall slowing (reduction in frequency) in EEG activity in experienced meditators versus less experienced meditators while meditating.[5][10] The alpha blocking phenomena, observed as a state change in brain function, was investigated as a possible trait change as well. One study that examined a variety of meditation techniques tried to show that alpha blocking was affected by the long term practice of meditation by testing response to auditory stimuli.[11] Review works, however, comment on inconsistent findings as well as a lack of repeated results in this, and other studies. They further remark that, similar to observations in brain state changes, only general assertions can be made about brain trait changes: some change in the electroencephalographic profile exists but with some inconsistency.[4][12] It is also important to note that these trait changes were observed during meditation, and although it does indicate that a practitioner’s electroencephalographic profile is modified by the practice of meditation, these EEG studies have not yet shown changes in non-meditating brains, even of experienced meditators.

Red region of the brain shows the hippocampus which had been shown to have heightened activity during meditation by experienced meditators.

Neuroimaging[edit]

Brain trait changes have also been observed in neuroimaging studies, most often employing fMRI. In a meta-analysis of 21 neuroimaging studies, eight brain regions were found to be consistently altered, including areas key to meta-awareness (frontopolar cortex/Brodmann area 10), exteroceptive and interoceptive body awareness (sensory cortex and insular cortex), memory consolidation and reconsolidation (hippocampus), self and emotion regulation (anterior cingulate cortex and orbitofrontal cortex), and intra- and interhemispheric communication (superior longitudinal fasciculus; corpus callosum)[13] These changes were distinguished by density increases in grey matter regions and white matter pathways in the brains of individuals who meditate in comparison to individuals who do not. Of all areas with reported findings, a greater number of structural changes were found in the left hemisphere.

There is also evidence to suggest meditation plays a protective role against the natural reduction in grey matter volume associated with aging. One study found evidence that Zen meditators experienced a slower age related decline rate for cerebral gray matter volume in the putamen which plays a role in learning, cognitive flexibility and attentional processing [14] This could suggest a better attentiveness in aging meditators versus non-meditators.

Long-term meditation practitioners have also shown to have a higher tolerance for pain.[15] This effect has been correlated to altered function and structure in somatosensory cortices and an increased ability to decouple regions in the brain associated with the cognitive appraisal of pain (anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex).[16]

The brain state changes found in meditators are almost exclusively found in higher-order executive and association cortices.[13] This supports the notion that meditation increases self-regulation and attentiveness. Recent studies have also investigated how these changes may alter the functionality and connectivity of the default mode network, which is a hypothesized network of brain regions that are active when an individual is engaged in internal tasks such as daydreaming.[17]

Validity of findings[edit]

In the meta-analysis performed by Fox et al., several sources of bias were indicated which bring into question the validity of meditation studies which use neuroimaging. Fox et al. suggests a publication bias may be leading to the over-reporting of significant results.[18] Despite this, however, Fox et al. found "consistent differences in prefrontal cortex and body awareness regions" in "areas key to meta-awareness..., exteroceptive and interoceptive body awareness..., memory consolidation and reconsolidation..., self and emotion regulation..., and intra- and interhemispheric communication..." and that changes were significant with "moderate" global median effect size and "consistent and medium-sized brain structure differences."[18]

More research will be needed before any firm conclusions can be made.

Popular literature[edit]

Positive portrayal[edit]

Besides scientific literature, some authors have written of the promising research on meditation in books targeted for general audiences. One such book, Buddha’s Brain by Rick Hanson, PhD shares the current scientific research and investigations into meditation.[19] Hanson, a neuroscientist and researcher, explains to readers the scientific studies in plain language and discuss the impact of the results. Hanson’s main argument is that positive emotions, like love can be strengthened through meditation in a neuroplastic manner, citing dozens of scientific studies to support this claim.[19] Hanson’s viewpoint is representative of a larger popular movement to study and embrace Eastern phenomena including meditation in the Western world.

Rebuttal[edit]

Critics, like Owen Flanagan, PhD, believe that Hanson, and those like him, are overextending the results of current scientific studies.[citation needed] In his book Bodhisattva’s Brain: Buddhism Naturalized, Flanagan presents a more conservative viewpoint of current scientific research and cautions readers against the seemingly exciting results of recent studies.[20] Flanagan does not believe current science supports the idea that positive emotion can be strengthened in the same way that stroke victims can recover use of limbs with use.[20] Flanagan does acknowledge that meditation may be beneficial in some way, but the mechanism of how meditation affects the brain is still clouded.[20] Similarly, Awasthi argues that meditation is non-specific to the research studies showing clinical efficacy in some cases, though mechanisms remain unclear.[21] Flanagan and Hanson use many of the same scientific studies to attempt to support their differing viewpoint, but both authors identify the need and importance of future studies investigating meditation.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Mizuno, Kogen (1972). Essentials of Buddhism. Tokyo: Kosei Publishing Company.
  2. ^ Ahir, D.C. (1999). Vipassana : A Universal Buddhist Meditation Technique. New Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications.
  3. ^ Kabat-Zinn, Jon (1998). Wherever You Go, There You Are : Mindfulness Meditation in Everyday Life. New York: Hyperion.
  4. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Cahn BR, Polich J (2006). "Meditation states and traits : EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies". Psychological Bulletin. 132 (2): 180–211. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.180. PMID 16536641.
  5. ^ Jump up to:a b Kasamatsu KH, Hirai T (1966). "An electroencephalographic study on the zen meditation (Zazen)". Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 20 (4): 315–336. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1819.1966.tb02646.x. PMID 6013341.
  6. ^ Jump up to:a b Chiesa A, Serretti, A (2010). "A systematic review of neurobiological and clinical features of mindfulness meditations". Psychological Medicine. 40 (8): 1239–1252. doi:10.1017/S0033291709991747. PMID 19941676.
  7. ^ Holzel BK, Ott U, Hempel H, Hackl A, Wolf K, Stark R, Vaitl D (2007). "Differential engagement of anterior cingulate and adjacent medial frontal cortex in adept meditators and non-meditators". Neuroscience Letters. 421 (1): 16–21. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2007.04.074. PMID 17548160.
  8. ^ Pagnoni G, Cekic M, Guo Y (2008). "' Thinking about not- thinking': neural correlates of conceptual processing during Zen meditation". PLoS ONE. 3 (9): e3083. Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.3083P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003083. PMC 2518618. PMID 18769538.
  9. ^ Jump up to:a b Lutz A, Brefczynski-Lewis J, Johnstone T, Davidson RJ (2008). "Regulation of the Neural Circuitry of Emotion by Compassion Meditation: Effects of Meditative Expertise". PLoS ONE. 3 (3): e1897. Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.1897L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001897. PMC 2267490. PMID 18365029.
  10. ^ Stigsby B, Rodenberg JC, Moth HB (1981). "Electroencephalographic findings during mantra meditation (transcendental meditation). A controlled, quantitative study of experienced meditators". Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology. 51 (4): 434–442. doi:10.1016/0013-4694(81)90107-3. PMID 6164542.
  11. ^ Becker DE, Shapiro D (1981). "Physiological responses to clicks during Zen, yoga, and TM meditation". Psychophysiology. 18 (6): 694–699. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1981.tb01846.x. PMID 7031742.
  12. ^ Andersen J (2000). "Meditation meets behavioural medicine: The story of experimental research on meditation". Journal of Consciousness Studies. 7: 17–73.
  13. ^ Jump up to:a b Fox, Kieran C.R.; Nijeboer, Savannah; Dixon, Matthew L.; Floman, James L.; Ellamil, Melissa; Rumak, Samuel P.; Sedlmeier, Peter; Christoff, Kalina (June 2014). "Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation practitioners". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 43: 48–73. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.016. PMID 24705269.
  14. ^ Pagnoni G, Cekic M (2007). "Age effects on gray matter volume and attentional performance in Zen meditation". Neurobiology of Aging. 28 (10): 1623–1627. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2007.06.008. PMID 17655980.
  15. ^ Grant, J. A.; Rainville, P. (5 January 2009). "Pain Sensitivity and Analgesic Effects of Mindful States in Zen Meditators: A Cross-Sectional Study". Psychosomatic Medicine. 71 (1): 106–114. doi:10.1097/psy.0b013e31818f52ee. PMID 19073756.
  16. ^ Grant, Joshua A.; Courtemanche, Jérôme; Rainville, Pierre (January 2011). "A non-elaborative mental stance and decoupling of executive and pain-related cortices predicts low pain sensitivity in Zen meditators". Pain. 152 (1): 150–156. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2010.10.006. PMID 21055874.
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  18. ^ Jump up to:a b Fox, Kieran C.R.; Nijeboer, Savannah; Dixon, Matthew L.; Floman, James L.; Ellamil, Melissa; Rumak, Samuel P.; Sedlmeier, Peter; Christoff, Kalina (2014). "Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation practitioners". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 43: 48–73. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.016. PMID 24705269.
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  20. ^ Jump up to:a b c Flanagan, Owen (2011). Bodhisattva's Brain: Buddhism Naturalized. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0262016049.
  21. ^ Awasthi B (2013). "Issues and perspectives in meditation research: in search for a definition". Frontiers in Psychology. 3: 613. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00613. PMC 3541715. PMID 23335908.

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Meditation
Main topics

Brain activity and meditation
History of meditation
Meditation in popular culture
Mind–body interventions
Research on meditation
Traditions

Anapanasati (Buddhist breathing meditation)
Buddhist meditation
Christian meditation
Taoist meditation
Dancemeditation
Dhyāna (Buddhist meditation)
Dhyāna (Hindu meditation)
Islamic meditation
Jain meditation
Jewish meditation
Muraqabah (Sufi meditation)
New Age meditation
Naam Japo (Sikism meditation)
Neigong
Pranayama (yoga breathing practice)
Qigong
Shikantaza (Zen Buddhist seated meditation)
Silva Method
Tantra
Transcendental meditation (TM)
Vipassanā (Silent meditation)
Yoga
Zazen (Zen Buddhist seated meditation)
Zhan zhuang (Qigong standing meditation)
5Rhythms
Techniques

Biofeedback
Brainwave entrainment
Breathing
Chanting
Concentration
Counting
Emptiness
Guided meditation
Higher consciousness
Mantra
Mindfulness
Mudra
Music
Oneness
Poetry
Postures
Prayer
Relaxation
Samyama
Sexuality
Silence
Sound
Trance
Visualization
Leaders

Focused attention
Thich Nhat Hanh
Open awareness
Jon Kabat-Zinn
Sam Harris
Multiple methods
Pema Chödrön
Susan Piver
S. N. Goenka
Joseph Goldstein
Yuval Harari
14th Dalai Lama
Matthieu Ricard
Sharon Salzberg
Daniel Goleman
Thubten Chodron
Martine Batchelor
Stephen Batchelor

Category

Categories:
Neuroscience
Neuropsychology
Meditation
Mindfulness (psychology)
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