2] Similarity in Diversity? Four Shared Functions of Integrative Contemplative Practice Systems
Doug Oman
The reader of this volume, impressed by the rich descriptions of many diverse systems of spiritual practice, may start to wonder, “What are the shared themes? What patterns emerge amidst this inspiring profu- sion of perspectives?” In this chapter, I sketch one possible answer— one way of characterizing shared themes and functions that appear in many different systems of practice. Along the way, I propose using the term integrated contemplative practice to describe systems of practice that meet a certain functional threshold.
Four common elements or themes can be found, I suggest, in most of the practice systems described in the next eight chapters. These commonalities exist even though some chapters describe com- prehensive and clearly defined systems, whereas others present instruc- tively selected highlights from venerable traditions. More specifically, the next four chapters in Part One examine well-defined systems of interrelated practices that are challenging, but can be undertaken by individuals in their entirety. Three systems partly or wholly tran- scend individual faith traditions (e.g., Mindfulness, Passage Medita- tion, Mantram), whereas the fourth (Christian-derived Centering Prayer) arose within a particular faith tradition. In contrast, all four chapters in Part Two explore venerable schools (yoga, Zen) or major traditions ( Judaism, Islam)1 that constitute storehouses of wisdom
8 Contemplative Practices in Action: Spirituality, Meditation, and Health
accumulated over many centuries. Each of these schools or tradi- tions, viewed in its entirety, has accumulated a richer repertoire of techniques than any one individual can fully implement.
One shared function of many spiritual practice systems was described in the 1980s by Daniel Goleman. He surveyed more than a dozen methods of meditation, both East and West, and reported that “the need for the meditator to retrain [his or her] attention ... is the single invariant ingredient in the recipe ... of every meditation system” (p. 107).2 Indeed, it seems quite likely that almost all of the practices dis- cussed in this book, when undertaken regularly over time, will affect— and may sometimes transform—how people habitually deploy their attention. But can we identify any specific and concrete forms of resem- blance between traditions?
Several concrete resemblances can indeed be identified. Recently, my colleagues and I at the Spirituality and Health Institute (SHI) observed several elements in common between two paradigmatic sys- tems of practice.3,4 More specifically, we found four distinct functions that were each accomplished, in slightly different ways, by these two integrated contemplative practice systems: Passage Meditation (PM) (Flinders et al., this volume) and mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) (Jazaieri and Shapiro, this volume).
Both PM and MBSR, we noted, require setting aside time—substantial
time—approximately half an hour daily—for undertaking a powerful attention-training activity. For this purpose, PM and MBSR each use a form of sitting meditation. Similarly, PM and MBSR each recommend specific mental centering/stabilizing practices to be used throughout the day to stabilize and balance the mind in conditions of stress or boredom (PM uses mantram repetition, and MBSR uses informal mindfulness practices). These analogous elements do not perform functions that are fully identical matches—rather, to borrow a phrase from positive psychology, these analogous elements, and the precise functions they perform, may be said to share a “coherent resemblance” (p. 35).5
Table 2.1 shows that with few exceptions, variants of these four elements are prevalent not only in PM and MBSR, but in each set of contemplative practices covered in the next eight chapters. These four shared elements, or features, are as follows:
1. Set-aside time—time that is set aside regularly, usually daily, for a disciplined activity or exercise that has a comparatively
Similarity in Diversity? 9
powerful effect on training attention.2 Variants of sitting medi- tation are commonly used. Some systems in this book also use prescribed postures (e.g., yoga, Islam). Such attention training can support optimal performance in all spheres of life, since “attention is the first and often most effective line of defense in nearly every sphere of self-control” (p. 1172).6 Most attention training fosters concentration, and “powerful concentration amplifies the effectiveness of any kind of activity” (p. 168).2 The attention-training functions of meditation are supported by recent neuroimaging evidence.7
2. Virtues and character strengths—qualities of character and behavior, such as compassion, forgiveness, or fearlessness. In many sys- tems, such qualities are to be cultivated throughout the day by making appropriate choices in thoughts, words, and actions. Typically, the recommended qualities involve subsets of six cross-culturally prevalent classes of virtues recently identified by positive psychologists—wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.5
3. Practices for centering/stabilizing that are usable throughout the day— such as during occasions of stress, anxiety, or unstructured time. Examples include returning the mind to the breath (MBSR), or returning the mind to repeating a mantram or holy name.8,9 Here, the contemporary word “center” (small c) is used to designate recovery of a sense of inner strength and balance. (This contrasts with the term “Centering Prayer,” which designates a specific sys- tem of Christian-derived practices,10 described elsewhere in this volume by Ferguson.)
4. Spiritual models—attending to individuals whose behavior reflects desired spiritual qualities—provide a unique resource for spiri- tual growth. Spiritual and religious educators have long viewed spirituality as primarily “caught, not taught” (p. 149),11 since so much of human learning is social. Spiritual and religious tradi- tions, and many of the practice systems described in this book, transmit words of revered or instructive spiritual models, such as Jesus, the Buddha, Muhammad, or various sages and saints.12 Attending to spiritual models’ words and actions can motivate sustained practice, and guide or inspire implementation of other spiritual practices (e.g., #1–#3).
Table 2.1. Presence and Naming of Features by Contemplative Practice Type
1 2 3 4
Practice System
Set-Aside (/Dedicated) Attention Training
Virtuous/Mindful Attitudes
Centering Practice Usable Throughout Day
Spiritual Models/ Exemplarsa
Integrated Contemplative Practice Systems (Part One)
Mindfulness (/Vipassana)b
Sitting meditation (on breath)
Mindfulness attitudes Informal practices Poetry
Passage Meditationb Sitting meditation
(on a passage)
Put others first;
+ additional
Mantram repetition Passages; reading
Centering Prayer Sitting meditation
(with sacred word)
Implicit;c silence, solitude, service
Prayers: active; welcoming
Implicitc
Mantramd Focus; slow Mantram repetition
Contemplative Traditions (Part Two)
Judaism Sabbath;e prayer; meditation
Implicit;c peace, calm, equanimity
Repeat verse (liturgy/ scripture)
Implicit;c teachers/ Rebbesf
Islam Five daily prayers Many (justice, gentleness, etc.)
Dhikr (remembrance); supplication
The Prophet/aha¯dı¯th
˙
Yoga Asanas +meditation Yamas (truth, nonviolence, etc.)
Lineage of teacher
Zen Sitting meditation (Zazen) Brahma Viharas (compassion, etc.)
Others Combinations or Systems—Yours, Your Client’s, or Your Student’s
1.
Mindfulness; letting go
Teaching stories; teacher
2.
3.
Note: For a fuller explanation of each practice system, see corresponding chapter in this volume; lists of practices contained in each cell may be incomplete. aThe final column describes learning from traditional or prominent models, but most systems also encourage spiritual fellowship to foster learning from positive models in the local community.
bMindfulness and Passage Meditation are the two paradigms used to develop the four categories.
c“Implicit” practice categories are typically enacted when an individual engages in traditional observance, especially communal worship. For example, Jewish and Christian services in synagogues and churches often include scripture readings about virtuous conduct and spiritual models such as Moses or Jesus. dMantram/holy name repetition as presented by Bormann lacks the full set of four elements that comprise an integral contemplative practice system, but it is extracted from such a system (Passage Meditation).
eThe Sabbath cycle is weekly (not daily).
fSee Silberman25 on Rebbes as spiritual models.
Figure 2.1 shows how these four elements of practice can work together in concert to foster spiritual growth and related outcomes. In every system, these elements are intended for integration into one’s daily and weekly routines of life,13 through which they may gradually transform “character, conduct and consciousness” (p. 37).14 As tools for retraining attention, they reinforce each other. They address multiple needs and opportunities that arise in the ordinary rhythms and textures of daily living. Like a well-designed course of instruction or a healthy physical exercise routine, they provide for periods of heightened intensity and immersion (#1, set-aside time), application of skills in diverse contexts (#2 character strengths and #3 centering/ stabilizing), and overall guidance and inspiration (#4 spiritual models). The model in Figure 2.1 suggests that these four elements function synergistically, by reinforcing each other. Like the nutritional contri- butions of complementary food groups,15 these four types of practice together may generate greater benefits than obtainable separately from individual practices. Of course, the model in Figure 2.1 is far from complete in representing all of the psychological and spiritual processes that operate in real time. Other factors include an
Figure 2.1. Elements Function Dynamically in Concert.
individual’s need for a valid and coherent worldview,16 and the influ- ence of spiritual fellowship.11,17 For this reason, forms of “spiritual shopping” (p. 126)18 that are blind, that incoherently mix and match incompatible elements from discordant practice traditions, will rarely be optimal. Spiritual benefits, one might hypothesize, are maximized when the elements interface and cohere harmoniously with each other, like pieces of a well-constructed musical instrument, or threads in a well-crafted tapestry. How to best evaluate the coherence of a set of prac- tices is, of course, a perennially controversial and important issue— and one that cannot be resolved here.
Practical applications flow from recognizing the synergistic interre- lation of elements in these four categories. For example, an individual could use the four categories as a checklist to review the complete- ness of his or her own practice, from the standpoint of the model in Figure 2.1. More broadly, the four elements might function as a checklist for a psychotherapist to help a client in reviewing his or her practice, or for an educator to lead students in reviewing or aug- menting their own practices. To distinguish it from something less complete, my SHI colleagues and I propose that a system of practices that encompasses elements from all four categories should be desig- nated an integral contemplative practice system.
In the practice systems examined in this book, centering activities (#3) are perhaps most commonly missing, or underemphasized in real-world implementations. A useful resource to redress this neglect is offered by Bormann’s chapter (this volume). She highlights mantram/holy name repetition, a cross-culturally common practice that produces centering. When sought, variations of mantram repetition can be found in many faith traditions and practice systems, including several described in this volume.
For individuals who are interested or engaged in some form of spiri- tual practice—about 80 percent of U.S. adults, according to a recent national survey (p. 79)19—the following questions may prove practically beneficial:
1. Do I currently draw spiritual support, strength, and reinforcement through engaging in practices in each of the four categories listed earlier? That is, do I enjoy the spiritual support of an integral contemplative practice?
2. If not, can I expand my practice in ways that are personally appropriate and consistent with my tradition and beliefs?
3. How can I extend my practice in a way that is most harmonious and complementary to my existing practices?
Such questions may also be relevant to the growing roster of for-profit and nonprofit organizations seeking to systematically integrate spir- ituality into the workplace20,21 (see also Delbecq, this volume, whose executive seminars have addressed all four elements).
Even beyond its relevance to spiritual practice, of course, many ben- efits can flow from identifying commonalities across faith traditions. Recognizing similarities may facilitate intercultural understanding, foster improved communication between human service professionals and diverse clients, and contribute to better education and health care. This chapter has described similarities in daily spiritual practices. Similarities also exist at other levels, ranging from the institutional22 to the philosophical.23 Comparatively few earlier writers, such as Walsh24 and Easwaran,14 have examined similarities in practices. Yet daily practice is at the core of applying spirituality to address real- world problems. Our analyses suggest that diverse faith traditions have recommended similarly integrated systems of contemplative practice. I encourage readers to consider how these four categories may apply to their own practices, and that of their clients, students, fellow congregants, and organizations, as well as to the practice sys- tems described in the next eight chapters in this book.
REFERENCES
1. Hamdan (this volume) describes practices from Islamic Sunni tradi- tion; also within Islam is Shia tradition, as well as Islam’s mystical side, Sufism, a phenomenon “so broad [and with] appearance so protean that nobody can venture to describe it fully” (p. 3), according to Schimmel, A. (1975). Mystical dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
2. Goleman, D. (1988). The meditative mind: The varieties of meditative experience. New York: Tarcher.
3. Oman, D., Shapiro, S. L., Thoresen, C. E., Plante, T. G., & Flinders, T. (2008). Meditation lowers stress and supports forgiveness among college students: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of American College Health, 56, 569–578.
4. Oman, D., Shapiro, S. L., Thoresen, C. E., Flinders, T., Driskill, J. D., & Plante, T. G. (2007). Learning from spiritual models and meditation: A ran- domized evaluation of a college course. Pastoral Psychology, 55, 473–493.
5. Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Washington, DC, and New York: American Psychological Association and Oxford University Press. “To say that particular virtues ... converge ... is not to argue that all their features line up perfectly, but rather that they have a coherent resemblance to one another, sharing more features than not” (p. 35).
6. Baumeister, R. F., & Exline, J. J. (1999). Virtue, personality, and social relations: Self-control as the moral muscle. Journal of Personality, 67, 1165–1194.
7. Lutz, A., Slagter, H. A., Rawlings, N. B., Francis, A. D., Greischar, L. L., & Davidson, R. J. (2009). Mental training enhances attentional stability: Neural and behavioral evidence. Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 13418–13427.
8. Oman, D., & Driskill, J. D. (2003). Holy name repetition as a spiritual exercise and therapeutic technique. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 22, 5–19.
9. Baesler, E. J. (2001). The prayer of the holy name in Eastern and Western spiritual traditions: A theoretical, cross-cultural, and intercultural prayer dialogue. Journal of Ecumenical Studies, 38, 196–216.
10. The term “Centering Prayer” was adopted in the 1970s by three Trappist monks to describe a system of practices they had codified; and one of its earliest published uses was in Pennington, M. B. (1980). Centering prayer. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
11. Oman, D., & Thoresen, C. E. (2003). Spiritual modeling: A key to spiritual and religious growth? International Journal for the Psychology of Reli- gion, 13, 149–165.
12. Oman, D., & Thoresen, C. E. (2007). How does one learn to be spiri- tual? The neglected role of spiritual modeling in health. In T. G. Plante &
C. E. Thoresen (Eds.), Spirit, science and health: How the spiritual mind fuels physical wellness (pp. 39–54). Westport, CT: Praeger.
13. Fiese, B. H., Tomcho, T. J., Douglas, M., Josephs, K., Poltrock, S., & Baker, T. (2002). A review of 50 years of research on naturally occurring fam- ily routines and rituals: Cause for celebration? Journal of Family Psychology, 16, 381–390.
14. Easwaran, E. (1978/2008). Passage meditation: Bringing the deep wisdom of the heart into daily life. Tomales, CA: Nilgiri Press (full text: http://www
.easwaran.org).
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16. Antonovsky, A. (1987). Unraveling the mystery of health: How people manage stress and stay well. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
17. Oman, D., Thoresen, C. E., Park, C. L., Shaver, P. R., Hood, R. W., & Plante, T. G. (2009). How does one become spiritual? The Spiritual Modeling Inventory of Life Environments (SMILE). Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 12, 427–456.
18. Wuthnow, R. (2005). America and the challenges of religious diversity. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
19. Gallup, G., & Lindsay, D. M. (1999). Surveying the religious landscape: Trends in U.S. beliefs. Harrisburg, PA: Morehouse.
20. Giacalone, R. A., & Jurkiewicz, C. L. (2003). Handbook of workplace spirituality and organizational performance. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.
21. Duerr, M. (2004). The contemplative organization. Journal of Organi- zational Change Management, 17, 43–61.
22. Smart, N. (1996). Dimensions of the sacred: An anatomy of the world’s beliefs. Berkeley: University of California Press.
23. Smith, H. (1976/1992). Forgotten truth: The common vision of the world’s religions. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco.
24. Walsh, R. N. (1999). Essential spirituality: The 7 central practices to awaken heart and mind. New York: Wiley.
25. Silberman, I. (2003). Spiritual role modeling: The teaching of meaning systems. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 13, 175–195.
CHAPTER 3
